TOPIC 1

SYSTEMS AND MODELS

ENERGY & EQUILIBRIA
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Concept and characteristics of a system

A system is a collection of well-organised and well-integrated elements with
perceptible attributes which establish relationships among them within a defined
space delimited by a boundary which necessarily transforms energy for its own
functioning.
An ecosystem is a dynamic unit whose organised and integrated elements
transform energy which is used in the transformation and recycling of matter in
an attempt to preserve its structure and guarantee the survival of all its
component elements.
Although we tend to isolate systems by delimiting the boundaries, in reality such
boundaries may not be exact or even real. Furthermore, one systems is always in
connection with another system with which it exchanges both matter and energy.
TOK Link: Does this hold true for the Universe?

System B
Boundary

Relationships

E3

Systems A
Elements

E2

System C

E1

A natural system = Ecosystem

Types of systems (1)

There are three types of systems based on
whether they exchange energy and/or matter:
Isolated System
System
It exchanges neither energy nor matter
Do isolated systems exist? If not, why then we have thought
about them?
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Types of systems (2)

Closed System

Energy

System

Energy

It only exchanges energy.

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Types of systems (3)

Open System
Energy

Energy

System
Matter

Matter

It exchanges both energy and matter.

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Laws of
Thermodynamics
1st Law of
Thermodynamics

The first law is concerned with the

conservation of energy and states that
energy can not be created nor destroyed but
it is transformed from one form into another.
* In any process where work is done, there has
been an energy transformation.
With no energy transformation there is no way
to perform any type of work.
All systems carry out work, therefore all
systems need to transform energy to work and
be functional.
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First Law of Thermodynamics

ENERGY 2
ENERGY 1

PROCESS
(WORK)
ENERGY 3

Photosynthesis: an example of the First Law of

Thermodynamics: Energy Transformation

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Photosynthesis and the First Law of

Thermodynamics

Heat Energy
Photosynthesis

Light Energy

Chemical Energy
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 The 2nd Law of

Thermodynamics
The second law explains the
dissipation of energy (as heat
energy) that is then not available
to do work, bringing about
disorder.
The Second Law is most simply
stated as, in any isolated system
entropy tends to increase
spontaneously. This means that
energy and materials go from a
concentrated to a dispersed form
(the capacity to do work
diminishes) and the system
becomes increasingly disordered.
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Life and Entropy

py

En

g
er

ro
Ent

Life

Life, in any of its forms or levels of

organization, is the continuous fight
against entropy. In order to fight against
entropy and keep order, organization
and functionality, living organisms must
used energy and transform it so as to
get the energy form most needed.
Living organisms use energy
continuously in order to maintain
everything working properly. If
something is not working properly,
living organisms must make
adjustments so as to put things back to
normal. This is done by negative
feedback mechanism.
What is really life? What do we live
for? What is our purpose?

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics can also be stated in the

following way:

In any spontaneous process the energy

transformation is not 100 % efficient, part of it is
lost (dissipated) as heat which, can not be used to do
work (within the system) to fight against entropy.
In fact, for most ecosystems, processes are on
average only 10% efficient (10% Principle), this
means
that
for
every
energy
passage
(transformation) 90% is lost in the form of heat
energy, only 10% passes to the next element in the
system.
Most biological processes are very inefficient in
their transformation of energy which is lost as heat.
As energy is transformed or passed along longer
chains, less and less energy gets to the end. This
posts the need of elements at the end of the chain to
be every time more efficient since they must operate
with a very limited amount of energy.
In ecological systems this problem is solved by
reducing the number of individuals in higher
trophic levels.
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Combustion & Cell Respiration: two examples that

illustrate the 1st and the 2nd laws of Thermodynamics
Chemical Energy
Chemical Energy
(petrol)
(sugar)
100 J

100 J

ATP
PROCESS
Combustion
20 J

PROCESS
Cell Respiration
40 J

Heat Energy
Heat Energy
80 J

60 J
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The Second Law of Thermodynamics

in numbers: The 10% Law
For most ecological process, theamount of energy that is passed from one
trophic level to Heat
the next is on average
Heat 10%.
Heat

900 J
Energy 1
1000 J

90 J

Process 1
100 J

9J
Process 2
10 J

Process 3
1J

J = Joule SI Unit of Energy

1kJ = 1 Kilo Joule = 1000 Joules
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(d) Calculate the percentage (%) of the solar energy received by plants which remain
available for herbivores?
[2]

(e) Which energy transformation chain is more efficient? Support your answer with
relevant calculations.
[3]

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Photosynthesis and the 2nd law of Thermodynamics

What is the efficiency of photosynthesis?

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Primary Producers and the 2nd law of

Thermodynamics
(Output)

(Output)
(Output)

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Consumers and the

2nd law of Thermodynamics

How efficient is the cow

in the use of the food it
takes daily?

Respiration
2000 kJ.day-1

10% for growth

2850 kJ.day-1
Food Intake

565
kJ.day-1
Urine and
Faeces

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The Ecosystem and the 2nd

law of Thermodynamics

What determines
that some ecosystems
are more efficient
than others?

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat
Heat

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The Steady State

The steady state is a common property of most

open systems in nature whereby the system state
fluctates around a certain point without much
change of its fundamental identity.
Static equilibrium means no change at all.
Dynamic equilibrium means a continuous move
from one point to another with the same
magnitude, so no net change really happens.
Living systems (e.g. the human body, a plant, a
population of termites, a community of plants,
animals and decomposers in the Tropical
Rainforest) neither remain static nor undergo
harmonic fluctuations, instead living systems
fluctuate almost unpredictably but always around
a mid value which is called the steady state.

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STATE OF THE SYSTEM

Static Equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium

Steady State

TIME

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Positive and Negative Feedback

Mechanisms
Natural systems should be understood as superorganisms whose component elements react against
disturbing agents in order to preserve the steady state
that guarantees the integrity of the whole system.
The reaction of particular component elements of
the systems againts disturbing agents is consider a
feedback mechanism.
Feedback links involve time lags since responses
in ecosystems are not immediate!
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Positive Feedback
Positive feedback leads to
increasing change in a system.
Positive feedback amplifies or
increases change; it leads to
exponential deviation away
from an equilibrium.
For example, due to Global
Warming high temperatures
increase evaporation leading
to more water vapour in the
atmosphere. Water vapour is a
greenhouse gas which traps
more heat worsening Global
Warming.
In positive feedback, changes
are reinforced. This takes
ecosystems to new positions.

Sun

Atmosphere
Water Vapour

+
Global
Evaporation
+

Heat
Energy

Warming
+
Oceans

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Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is a selfregulating method of control
leading to the maintenance of
a steady state equilibrium.
Negative feedback
counteracts deviations from
the steady state equilibrium
point.
Negative feedback tends to
damp down, neutralise or
counteract any deviation from
an equilibrium, and promotes
stability.

Population of
Lynx

+
Population of
Hare

In this example, when the Hare population increases,

the Lynx population increases too in response to the
increase in food offer which illustrates both Bottom-Up
regulation and Positive Feedback.
However, when the Lynx population increases too
much, the large number of lynxes will pray more hares
reducing the number of hares. As hares become fewer,
some lynxes will die of starvation regulating the
number of lynx in the population. This illustrates both
Top-Down and negative Feedback regulation. 39

Negative feedback: an example of

population control

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Positive & Negative Feedback

Population 1
+
Climate

Food
-

Population 2
+
-

Population 3
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Positive & Negative Feedback

Positive feedback

Food

Population

Negative feedback
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Negative or Positive ?
Climate
Disease
Food
P1

P2

P3

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Bottom-Up & TopDown Control

In reality, ecosystems are
controlled all the time by the
combined action of Bottom-Up
and Top-Down mechanisms of
regulation.
In Bottom-Up regulation the
availability of soil nutrients
regulate what happens upwards
in the food web.
In Top-Down regulation the
population size (number of
individuals) of the top carnivores
determines the size of the other
populations down the food web
in an alternating way.

Plants
Nutrient pool of the Soil
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Transfer and Transformation Processes

Transfers normally flow through a system from one

compartment to another and involve a change in
location. For example, precipitation involves the
change in location of water from clouds to sea or
ground. Similarly, liquid water in the soil is
transferred into the plant body through roots in the
same liquid form.
Transformations lead to an interaction within a
system in the formation of a new end product, or
involve a change of state. For example, the
evaporation of sea water involves the absorption of
heat energy from the air so it can change into water
vapour. In cell respiration, carbon in glucose changes
to carbon in carbon dioxide. Ammonia (NH3) in the
soil are absorbed by plant roots and in the plant
nitrates are transformed into Amino acids. During
photosynthesis carbon in the form of CO2 is changed
into carbon in the form of Glucose (C6H12O6).These
are just some example of transformations.

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Flows and Storages

Flows are the inputs and outputs that come in and out between
component elements in a system. This inputs and outputs can be
of energy or quantities of specific substances (e.g. CO2 or H2O).
Storages or stocks are the quantities that remain in the system
or in any of its component elements called reservoirs.
reservoirs
For example, in the Nitrogen Cycle, the soil stores nitrates
(stock) (NO3-) however some nitrates are taken away as such by
run-off water and absorbed by plant roots (output flows) but at
the same time rainfall brings about nitrates, human fertilization
and the transformation of ammonia (NH3) in to nitrates maintain
the nitrate stock in soil constant under ideal conditions.

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IB Question

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A simple model
of an aquarium

CO2

O2

CO2

O2

CO2

O2

Primary Producers
Aq Plant 1

Air

Herbivorous animals

Aq Plant 2

Light

Heat

Carnivorous
animal

Snail

Algae

Flea

Phytoplankton

Heat
NO3

CO2
NO3

O2

DOM

Water

Decomposers
Mud
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Transfer, transformation, flows and storages

(A qualitative model)

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Transfer, transformation,
flows and storages

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Transfer, transformation, flows and storages

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What can you identify in a

plant?
Transfer:

Transformation

Flows

Storage:
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1.1.9 Quantitative Models

A model is an artificial construction designed to represent the
properties, behaviour or relationships between individual parts
of the real entity being studied y order to study it under
controlled conditions and to make predictions about its
functioning when one or more elements and /or conditions are
changed.
A model is a representation of a part of the real world which
helps us in ex situ studies.
For example, the Carbon Cycle on the next slide is a quantitative
model showing how carbon flows from one compartment to
another in our planet. The width of the arrows are associated to
the amount of carbon that is flowing. Figures next or on top of
arrows indicate the amount of carbon in the flow. Similarly,
figures inside boxes of compartments show the stocks or
storages of carbon in each compartment.
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A quantitative model
(The Carbon Cycle)

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http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp58/5802002.html

A simplified model on how the

ecosystem works

For an entire
ecosystem to be in
steady state, or for
one of its
components to be
in steady state, the
following must be
achieved:

The Steady State condition:

inputs outputs

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IB Question

ES-Practice-Model Making Pastoral System in Angola.pdf

MODEL MAKING PASTORAL SYSTEM IN ANGOLA.ppt

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Models can be used to make predictions

The following model tries to explain the ecological behaviour of a human communities.

MODELLING SYSTEMS Handout.doc

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1.10 Strengths and Limitations of Models

A model is a representation of part or the totality of a reality made by human

beings with the hope that models can help us (i) represent the structural
complexity of the reality in a simpler way eliminating unnecessary elements that
create confusions, (ii) understand processes which are difficult to work out with
the complexity of the real world, (iii) assess multiple interaction individually and
as a whole (iv) predict the behaviour of a system within the limitations imposed
by the simplification accepted as necessary for the sake of the understanding.
Models are simplifications of real systems. They can be used as tools to better
understand a system and to make predictions of what will happen to all of the
system components following a disturbance or a change in any one of them. The
human brain cannot keep track of an array of complex interactions all at one time,
but it can easily understand individual interactions one at a time. By adding
components to a model one by one, we develop an ability to consider the whole
system together, not just one interaction at a time. Models are hypotheses. They
are proposed representations of how a system is structured, which can be rejected
in light of contradictory evidence.
No model is a 'perfect' representation of the system because, as mentioned above,
all models are simplifications and in some cases needed over simplifications.
Moreover, human subjectivity may lead to humans to make models biased by
scholar background, disregard of the relevance of some components or simply by
a limited perception or understanding of the reality which is to be modeled.

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