Machinability of Metals

Machinability
Ease or difficulty with which metal can be
machined
Measured by length of cutting-tool life in minutes
or by rate of stock removal in relation to cutting
speed employed

Grain Structure
Machinability of metal affected by its
microstructure
Ductility and shear strength modified greatly by
operations such as annealing, normalizing and
stress relieving
Certain chemical and physical modifications of
steel improve machinability
Addition of sulfur, lead, or sodium sulfite
Cold working, which modifies ductility
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Results of (Free-Machining)
Modifications
Three main machining characteristics become
evident
Tool life is increased
Better surface finish produced
Lower power consumption required for machining

Low-Carbon (Machine) Steel

Large areas of ferrite interspersed with small
areas of pearlite
Ferrite: soft, high ductility and low strength
Pearlite: low ductility and high strength
Combination of ferrite and iron carbide

More desirable microstructure in steel is when

pearlite well distributed instead of in layers

High-Carbon (Tool) Steel

Greater amount of pearlite because of higher
carbon content
More difficult to machine steel efficiently

Desirable to anneal these steels to alter

microstructures
Improves machining qualities

Alloy Steel
Combinations of two or more metals
Generally slightly more difficult to machine than
low-or high-carbon steels
To improve machining qualities
Combinations of sulfur and lead or sulfur and
manganese in proper proportions added
Combination of normalizing and annealing

Machining of stainless steel greatly eased by

addition of selenium
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Cast Iron
Consists generally of ferrite, iron carbide, and
free carbon
Microstructure controlled by addition of alloys,
method of casting, rate of cooling, and heat
treating
White cast iron cooled rapidly after casting
hard and brittle (formation of hard iron carbide)

Gray cast iron cooled gradually

composed by compound pearlite, fine ferrite, iron
carbide and flakes of graphite (softer)
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Cast Iron
Machining slightly difficult due to iron carbide
and presence of sand on outer surface of
casting
Microstructure altered through annealing
Iron carbide broken down into graphitic carbon and
ferrite
Easier to machine

Addition of silicon, sulfur and manganese gives

cast iron different qualities
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Aluminum
Pure aluminum generally more difficult to
machine than aluminum alloys
Produces long stringy chips and harder on cutting
tool

Aluminum alloys
Cut at high speeds, yield good surface finish
Hardened and tempered alloys easier to machine
Silicon in alloy makes it difficult to machine
Chips tear from work (poor surface)
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Copper
Heavy, soft, reddish-colored metal refined from
copper ore (copper sulfide)

High electrical and thermal conductivity

Good corrosion resistance and strength
Easily welded, brazed or soldered
Very ductile

Does not machine well: long chips clog flutes of

cutting tool
Coolant should be used to minimize heat
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Copper/Beryllium
Heavy, hard, reddish-colored copper metal with
Beryllium added

High electrical and thermal conductivity

Good corrosion resistance and strength
Can be welded
Somewhat ductile
Withstands high temperature

Machines well
Highly abrasive to HSS Tooling
Coolant should be used to lubricate and minimize
tool wear

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Copper-Based Alloys: Brass

Alloy of copper and zinc with good corrosion
resistance, easily formed, machines, and cast
Several forms of brass
Alpha brasses: up to 36% zinc, suitable for cold
working
Alpha 1 beta brasses: Contain 54%-62% copper and
used in hot working

Small amounts of tin or antimony added to

minimize pitting effect of salt water
Used for water and gas line fittings, tubings, tanks,
radiator cores, and rivets

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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Alloys of copper and tin which contain up to 12%
of principal alloying element
Exception: copper-zinc alloys

Phosphor-bronze
90% copper, 10% tin, and very small amount of
phosphorus
High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance
Used for lock washers, cotter pins, springs and clutch
discs
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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Silicon-bronze (copper-silicon alloy)
Contains less than 5% silicon
Strongest of work-hardenable copper alloys
Mechanical properties of machine steel and
corrosion resistance of copper
Used for tanks, pressure vessels, and hydraulic
pressure lines

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Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Aluminum-bronze (copper-aluminum alloy)
Contains between 4% and 11% aluminum
Other elements added
Iron and nickel (both up to 5%) increases strength
Silicon (up to 2%) improves machinability
Manganese promotes soundness in casting

Good corrosion resistance and strength

Used for condenser tubes, pressure vessels, nuts
and bolts
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Effects of
Temperature and Friction
Heat created
Plastic deformation occurring in metal during process
of forming chip
Friction created by chips sliding along cutting-tool face

Cutting temperature varies with each metal and

increases with cutting speed and rate of metal
removal

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Effects of
Temperature and Friction
Greatest heat generated when ductile material
of high tensile strength cut
Lowest heat generated when soft material of
low tensile strength cut
Maximum temperature attained during cutting
action
affects cutting-tool life, quality of surface finish, rate
of production and accuracy of workpiece
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High Heat
Temperature of metal immediately ahead of
cutting tool comes close to melting temperature
of metal being cut

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Friction
Kept low as possible for efficient cutting action
Increasing coefficient of friction gives greater
possibility of built-up edge forming
Larger built-up edge, more friction
Results in breakdown of cutting edge and poor
surface finish

Can reduce friction at chip-tool interface and help

maintain efficient cutting temperatures if use
good supply of cutting fluid
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Factors Affecting Surface Finish

Feed rate
Nose radius of tool
Cutting speed
Rigidity of machining operation
Temperature generated during machining
process

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Surface Finish
Direct relationship between temperature of
workpiece and quality of surface finish
High temperature yields rough surface finish
Metal particles tend to adhere to cutting tool and
form built-up edge

Cooling work material reduces temperature of

cutting-tool edge
Result in better surface finish
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