BML Munjal University

Objectives
This chapter covers:
This Lecture covers
Day-to-day Applications
Understand how computers evolved during four
generations of computers

Some Day-to-Day
Applications
Looking up information and news
Exchange e-mail
Shopping and paying bills
Booking Tickets
Downloading music and movies
Organizing photographs
Playing games
Browsing Information
Computer has become central part of information &
entertainment

Computers in the Home

Wireless Networking
Computers are used in any location
Smart Appliances
Traditional appliances with built-in computer or
communication technology
Household tasks are monitored & controlled by
computer

Computers in Education
Schools use computer as overall student-based
learning tool
Universities have integrated Classrooms,
computer labs, libraries, Wireless access and
online assignments
Teachers: Prepare course outline, exams, class
presentations
Distance learning
Students participate from locations other than
traditional classroom setting using computers
& Internet access

Computers in Education

Computers in the Workplace

Computers have become a universal tool for
decision-making, productivity and
communication
Used by all types of employees and service
professionals
Used for access control & other security
measures
Used extensively by military

Computers in the Workplace

Computers on the Go
Computers are encountered in nearly every
aspect of daily life

Portable PCs and Handheld computers

Wi-Fi hotspots and Internet cafes
ATM machines and Retail stores
Self-checkout systems
M-commerce Systems
GPS Systems

Computers Then and Now

Each new generation is characterized
by a major technological
development
Precomputers and early computers
(before 1943)
Abacus, slide rule, mechanical
calculator, Punch Card Tabulating
Machine

First-Generation Computers
(1943-1957)
Used only by
professionals

Affordable by big
organizations

Enormous and
Powered by
vacuum tubes

Non-portable

Relied on
Machine
language to
perform
operations

Could solve only

one problem at a
time

Used lot of
electricity,
generated a lot
of heat; often led
to malfunction

Slow I/O devices

Used Magnetic
drums for
storage

ENIAC, EDVAC
and UNIVAC IBM
701 IBM 650

First-Generation Computers

Electronic Numerical Integrator And

Computer, ENIAC
First electronic general-purpose computer capable of
being reprogrammed to solve a large class of
numerical problems.
Weighed 30
tons

Thousands
of Resistors,
capacitors,
inductors

Relays 1500

Consumed
200 Kw of
power

Vacuum tubes
18000

Used for weather prediction, atomic energy

calculations random number studies.

ENIAC
Not a stored-program computer
Used 17,468 vacuum tubes and separate memory blocks for
program and data.
Did addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square
root
I/P was based on punched cards and o/p was on printouts
Used the decimal number system for representing and
processing values.
Became obsolete soon because of need for faster computing
speeds
14

ENIAC

15

Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic

Computer EDVAC (1951)
Used 5900 vacuum tubes.
Used main memory of 1K. Used a secondary memory of 20K
words for program and data.
Numbers were stored as binary bits 1-0001, 9-1001.
Used stored program concept.
Had separate instruction format for the Input and Output
operations.

16

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic

Computer)
First fully electronic digital computer built in the U.S.
ENIAC weighted 30 tons contained 18,000
vacuum tubes.
Faster than ENIAC.

17

ENIAC
Prob: A mechanical
device does addition
in 20 s. An valve
circuit adds it in 2
ms, what is the
improvement in
processing speed?
Soln:10000 times
18

Limitations
Functioning of these computers
depended on the machine language.
Therefore, computers were not easy to
program.
Designed as special-purpose
computers.
Non-portable
Large in size
Single tasking
Generated huge amount of heat
19

Second-Generation
Computers
(1958-1963) Transistors
Medium sized
corporations
started using it

Produced heat.
Needed AC

Batch Processing
and
Multiprogramming,
PDP 8, IBM 1401,
IBM 7090

Transistors replaced
vacuum tubes

Assembly language
was introduced

Relied on Punch
cards for i/ps &
printouts for o/ps

Computers were
more compact in
size, more
powerful, cheaper,
more efficient and
more reliable

First computers
that stored
instructions in
memory, which
moved from
magnetic drum to
magnetic core

Addition,
subtraction,
multiplication,
division on fixed
and floating point
numbers

Examples
Prob: Assume a vacuum tube valve operated at
150v, 5 mA and a transistor operated at 6v, 1 mA.
What is the reduction in power dissipation?
Soln: 7500 mW/6mW=1250 times
Prob: Assume a vacuum valve needed 4 cm height
and 1.5 sq cm base area. A transistor needs 0.4 cm
& 0.09 sq cm base area. What is the reduction in
space requirement?
Soln: 6cm3 /36mm 3=167 times

21

Examples
Prob: Assume a vacuum tube switched
current from state 0 to 1 in 10 microsec and
a transistor in 1 microsec. What is the
enhancement in processing speed?
Soln: speed of processing is increased by a
factor of 10/1 = 10 times

22

Second-Generation
Computers

Limitations
Input and Output media were not
improved to a considerable extent.
They were required to be placed in
AC places.
Cost was very high.
Could execute only specific
applications.

24

Third-Generation Computers
(1964-1971) Integrated Circuits
Minicomputers
appeared &
became more
accessible

Use by small
companies

Use of IC made
computers smaller in
size, reliable, efficient
and drastically
increased the speed

Instead of
punched cards
and printouts;
Keyboards and
monitors
introduced

Time Sharing,
Real-time and
Multiprogrammin
g Operating
Systems were

Used ICs (transistors,

resistors, capacitors &
associated circuity on
same chip)

High-level language
(Fortran-II-IV, Cobol,
Pascal PL/1, Basic,
Algol etc.)

Third-Generation Computers

Examples 3rd Gen: IBM 360

LSI (100-1000 gates) are used

Semiconductor ICs as main memory

Large number of registers (16 GPR and 4 Floating point), 32-bit
instruction format
Concept of flag register, micro programmed implementation of
instructions
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, divison on fixed and floating
point numbers
27

Examples
Prob: Assume a transistor needs 0.4 x 0.3 cm2 base
area and IC has 1000 transistors and the IC also
uses the same 0.4 x 0.3 cm2 silicon area? What is
the reduction in space requirement?
Soln: by a factor of 1000
Prob: Assume a VLSI needs 0.04 x 0.03 cm2 silicon
area for 1000 transistors? What is the reduction in
space requirement as compared to second
generation computers?
Soln: by a factor of (0.4/0.04)x(0.3/0.03) x
1000=100000 times = 0.1 million
28

Examples
Prob: Assume a main memory unit needs 4
transistors per bit and memory LSI IC stores 1024
bits. How many LSI are needed for 16 KByte
memory
Soln: 16 KByte memory: 16x1024x8 bits
No of Memory LSI=16x1024x8/1024=128
128 LSI Chips are used to store 16KByte memory
Total no of transistors: 16x1024x8x4=512k
Concept: More memory came in fewer ICs
29

Limitations
Storage capacity was small.
While executing large applications,
performance of computers degraded.
High cost
Required AC places

30

Fourth-Generation Computers
(1971-present) Microprocessors
Microprocessors
appeared

LSI and VLSI circuits having

about 5000 transistors &
other circuit elements on a
single chip

Computers became more

powerful, compact,
reliable, and affordable.
Result was personal
computer (PC) revolution

keyboards,
mouse,
monitors, &
printers

Computer networks, wireless technologies,

Internet introduced; data communication
started, GUI

Intel 4004 chip

developed in
1971
magnetic disks,
flash memory,
& optical disks
for storage
IBM PC (1981),
Apple
Macintosh
(1984)

Examples (Personal Computer, Pentium

based Computer)
Single VLSI CPU Chip as Microprocessor
Cache Memory
Large number of Registers (16 and 32 bit)
Fixed and variable length instruction formats (8-64 bits)
Large Main memory using semiconductor Ics
Concepts of pipelining, superscalar
C, C++, Java
Variety of input and output devices
32

Examples
Data:
In 1992: one transistor area: 0.4mx0.4m
So a 1cm2 silicon chip has 625 Million per /cm 2 no of
transistors
Let an LSI IC have 1000 transistors in 0.4cmx0.4cm
silicon area
Let a VLSI IC have 1 Million transistors in
0.01cmx0.01cm area
Reduction in silicon space requirement by a factor
of
(100,0000/1000)x40x40=1600,000 times over third
33
generation IC

Examples
Prob:
In 2002: one transistor area: 0.13mx0.13m
Find transistor density per /cm 2
Soln: Silicon area: 0.13mx0.13m =1.69x 10

cm

-10

Density= 1/(1.69x 10 -10) = 6000 Million transistors per sq cm

Prob: Assume a memory LSI IC stores 1024 bits and VLSI IC stores 16 M bits
(1992). How many LSI and VLSI are needed for 16 MByte memory.

34

No of LSI:128

Computational speed enhancement in 4th

gen computers
Transistor switches state within an LSI IC: 0.1s
Transistor switches state within an VLSI IC: 0.001s
Transistor switches state within an VVLSI IC: 0.1ns
Enhancement in processing speed by a factor of
0.1/0.001s = 100 times over third gen (due to
fabrication technology)
If we use VVLSI then enhancement is 1000 times
over third gen
On an average, no of transistors that can be fabricated on a
silicon chip increases about 50 percent per year and the
transistor speed increases such that the delay of a basic logic
gate decreases by 13 percent per year. This observation that
performance increases geometrically not linearly is referred to

Example
Prob: If the performance of the best
available computer on Jan 1 2001 is defined
to be 1, what would be the expected
performance on Jan 1 2014
Soln: Performance improvement is 50% per
year
After 13 years performance= 1x (1.5) 13
= 194.6 times
36

Fourth-Generation
Computers

Limitations
Soldering LSI and VLSI chips on
wiring board was difficult.
Highly skilled staff was required for
manufacturing.

38

Fifth-Generation (Now and the

Future)
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) :
microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components

Parallel processing hardware and software

Languages like C and C++, Java
More user friendly interfaces with
multimedia features

Now and the future

Artificial intelligence (AI) : makes computers think
like humans and includes:
Games Playing

Programming computers to
play games such as chess

Natural Language Computers to understand

programming
natural human languages
Robotics
Expert Systems

Programming computers to see

and hear and react to other
sensory stimuli
Programming computers to
make decisions in real-life
situations
for ex, help doctors diagnose
diseases based on
symptoms

Now and the future

Currently, no computers exhibit full AI (able to

simulate human behavior)
The greatest advances have occurred in the field
of games playing
The chess programs are now capable of beating
humans.
In May 1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep
Blue defeated world chess champion Gary
Kasparov in a chess match

Von Neumann Architecture

Describes a design architecture for
an electronicdigital computer.
Basic Model for designing and
building computers.

43

 It is based on the following three

characteristics:
It consists of four main sub-systems:

44

Memory
Control Unit
ALU
Input / Output System

Program is stored in memory during

execution.
Program instructions are executed
sequentially.

Von Neumann Architecture

Bus
Processor (CPU)
Memory

Control Unit

Input-Output

Registers
ALU
Store data and program
Execute program
Temporary Storage Unit

45

Do arithmetic/logic operations
requested by program

Communicate
with
"outside world",
e.g.
Screen
Keyboard
Storage
devices

 When the computer is running, both

program and data are stored in the
memory.
Operations on Memory
LOAD (address):
READ the content of memory cell with the
specified address.

STORE (address, value):

WRITE the specified value into the memory cell
specified by address.
46

 The task of the Control Unit is to

execute programs by repeatedly:

47

Fetch from memory the next instruction

to be executed.
Decode it, that is, determine what is to
be done.
Execute it by issuing the appropriate
signals to the ALU, memory, and I/O
subsystems.
Continues until the HALT (Stop Program
Execution) instruction.

 Registers are the temporary

storage units within CPU.
Instruction Register: Contains the
current instruction.
Program Counter: Stores the address of
next instruction.

48

 Input /Output
Handles devices that allow the computer
system to:
Communicate and interact with the
outside world
Screen, keyboard, printer, ...
Store information (mass-storage)
Hard-drives, floppies, CD, tapes,

49

Limitation of Von-Neumann
Model
Stored-program Computer in which
an instruction fetch and a data
operation cannot occur at the same
time because they share a
commonbus.
This is referred to as the
Von Neumann bottleneckand often
limits the performance of the system.
50

Computers to Fit Every Need

Basic categories of computers
Embedded computers
Personal computers
Midrange servers
Mainframe computers
Supercomputer

Embedded Computers
Embedded into a product
Designed to perform specific functions for
that product
Cannot be used as general-purpose
computers
Often embedded into:

Household appliances
Thermostats
Audio/Video equipment
Cars
Mobile devices

Personal Computers/Desktop PCs

Personal
Compute
s

Deskto
p PCs

Portabl
e

System used by one person at

a time
also called a microcomputer
can be desktop or portable
computer
fit on to a desk, tower,
desktop case
Can be PC-compatible or
Macintosh
Thin Clients: designed to
access a network for
processing
Not designed to be portable
Notebook (laptop) computers
Tablet PCs

Midrange Server
Midrange server: A medium-sized
computer used to host programs & data
for a small network
Users connect via a network with a
computer or thin client
May consist of collection of individual
circuit boards called blades (blade
servers)

Mainframe Computers
Are powerful computers to manage large
amounts of centralized data
Located in data centers & connected to
rest of the computers via a network
Larger, more expensive, more powerful
than midrange servers
Usually operate 24 hours a day
Also called high-end servers or enterpriseclass servers

Supercomputers
Fastest, most expensive, most powerful type of
computers
Commonly built by connecting hundreds of
smaller computers, supercomputing cluster
Used for

space exploration
missile guidance
weather forecast
oil exploration
scientific research
decision support systems,
3D applications

Some Important Milestones

Yea
r

Event

1969

Arpanet is born; part of Defense Research project; a

connection between univ of California and Stanford research
institute is made

1971

First Microprocessor Intel 4004 introduced by Ted Hoff; people

first communicated over network (23 hosts ARPAnet). Email
Invented

1972

C Programming Language developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell

Labs;, first public demonstartion of ARPAnet connecting 40
machines

1973

ARPAnet Users 35

1975

Bill Gates and Paul Allen wrote BASIC for Altair

1976

Steve Woznaik & Steve Jobs founded Apple Computer &

released Apple I; Queen Elizabeth sends an email

1978

400 ARPAnet users

1980

Sony introduced 3.5 floppy; Seagate launched 5.25

Harddisk; IBM chose Microsoft to develop their OS- PCDOS

1981

IBM introduced IBM-PC, DOS based, 8088 CPU, 64 KB RAM

1982

Intel introduced 80286; Time magazine named computer as

machine of Year; word Internet is coined; Invention of TCP/IP
protocol

1983

Compaq computers started IM-compatible Industry

1984

First version of Microsoft Windows released; Apple also

featured GUI interface

1985

Intel introduced 80386; CDROM released

1989

Tim Berners Lee (CERN) invented WWW, a global hypertext

system

1990

Archie, the first search engine launched

1993

Intel introduced Pentium; 50 HTTP servers, 600 www sites

online; Mosaic web browser launched

1994

Linus Torvalds created Linux and launched open source

revolution; 10000 www sites; Yahoo launched

1995

Windows 95 released

1996

Hotmail introduced

Some Important Milestones

Yea
r

Event

2000

Pentium 4 released; USB flash drives launched

2001

Intel introduced 64-bit CPU Itanium, Microsoft released

Windows XP; Wikipedia launched

2003

AMD released 64-bit Opteron Server microprocessor and 64bit Athlon for desktop PC; iTunes, Safari LinkedIn, Skype
launched

2005

Internet Users breaks 1 billion; Youtube launched

2006

Twitter launched

2007

Windows Vista; Office 2000, Quad Core CPU by both Intel and
AMD; apple launces iPhone

2008

Facebook becomes worlds most popular social networking

site; Google launched Chrome

2001

Intel introduced 64-bit CPU Itanium, Microsoft released

Windows XP

2011

Death of Steve Jobs; Microsoft buys skype