Basic Principles of Imaging and Lenses

Light

Electromagnetic
Radiation

Photons

Light

These three are the same

Light
* pure energy

Electromagnetic Waves
* energy-carrying waves emitted by vibrating electrons

Photons
* particles of light

EM Radiation Travels as a Wave

c = 3 x 108 m/s

EM Radiation Carries Energy

Quantum mechanics tells us that for photons E = hf

where E is energy and h is Plancks constant.
But f = c/
Putting these equations together, we see that
E = hc/

Electromagnetic Wave Velocity

The speed of light is the same for all seven forms of light.

It is 300,000,000 meters per second or 186,000 miles per second.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio Waves - communication

Microwaves - used to cook
Infrared - heat waves
Visible Light - detected by your eyes
Ultraviolet - causes sunburns
X-rays - penetrates tissue
Gamma Rays - most energetic

The Multi-Wavelength Sun

X-Ray

UV

Composite
Infrared

Visible

Radio

EM Spectrum Relative Sizes

The Visible Spectrum

Light waves extend in wavelength from about 400 to 700 nanometers.

A Brief History of Images

Camera Obscura, Gemma Frisius, 1558

1544

Camera Obscura

"When images of illuminated objects ... penetrate through a small hole into a
very dark room ... you will see [on the opposite wall] these objects in their
proper form and color, reduced in size ... in a reversed position, owing to the
intersection of the rays". Leonardo da Vinci
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAMERA_OBSCURA.html (Russell Naughton)
Slidecredit:DavidJacobs

A Brief History of Images

Lens Based Camera Obscura, 1568

1558
1568

Jetty at Margate England,

1898.

http://brightbytes.com/cosite/collection2.html (Jack and Beverly Wilgus)

Slidecredit:DavidJacobs

A Brief History of Images

1558
1568

1837

Still Life, Louis Jaques Mande Daguerre, 1837

A Brief History of Images

1558
1568

1840?

Abraham Lincoln?

A Brief History of Images

1558
1568

1837
Silicon Image Detector, 1970

1970

A Brief History of Images

1558
1568

1837

Digital Cameras

1970
1995

A Brief History of Images

1558
1568

1837

Hasselblad HD2-39

1970
1995
2006

Geometric Optics and Image Formation

Pinhole Cameras

Pinhole camera - box with a small hole in it

Image is upside down, but not mirrored left-to-right
Question: Why does a mirror reverse left-to-right but not top-to-bottom?

Pinhole and the Perspective Projection

Is an image being formed
on the screen?

(x,y)

YES! But, not a clear one.

screen

scene

image plane

r ( x, y , z )

y
optical
axis

effective focal length, f

z
x

pinhole

r ' ( x' , y ' , f ' )

r' r

f' z

x' x

f' z

y' y

f' z

Problems with Pinholes

Pinhole size (aperture) must be very small to obtain a clear image.

However, as pinhole size is made smaller, less light is received by image plane.

If pinhole is comparable to wavelength of incoming light, DIFFRACTION

effects blur the image!

Sharpest image is obtained when:

pinhole diameter d 2

f '

Example: If f = 50mm,

= 600nm (red),
d = 0.36mm

The Reason for Lenses

Image Formation using (Thin) Lenses

Lenses are used to avoid problems with pinholes.

Ideal Lens: Same projection as pinhole but gathers more light!

P
f

Gaussian Lens Formula:

1 1 1

i o f

f is the focal length of the lens determines the lenss ability to bend (refract) light
f different from the effective focal length f discussed before!

Focus and Defocus

aperture
Blur Circle,

aperture
diameter

b
d

i'
Gaussian Law:

1 1 1

i o f

o'
1 1 1

i ' o' f

Blur Circle Diameter :

(i 'i )

f
f
(o o ' )
(o' f ) (o f )

d
(i ' i )
i'

Depth of Field: Range of object distances over which image is sufficiently well focused,
i.e., range for which blur circle is less than the resolution of the imaging sensor.

Problems with Lenses

Compound (Thick) Lens

Vignetting
B

L3 L2 L1

principal planes

nodal points

thickness

Chromatic Abberation

more light from A than B !

Radial and Tangential Distortion

ideal

FB FG
FR

actual

ideal
actual
image plane

Lens has different refractive indices

for different wavelengths.

Spherical Aberration

Spherical lenses are the only easy shape to manufacture, but are not correct for perfect focus.

Two Lens System

d
object

final
image

f2

i2

o2

i1

f1
o1

image
plane

intermediate
virtual image

lens 2

lens 1

Rule : Image formed by first lens is the object for the second lens.
Main Rays : Ray passing through focus emerges parallel to optical axis.
Ray through optical center passes un-deviated.

Magnification:

i2 i1
o2 o1

Exercises: What is the combined focal length of the system?

What is the combined focal length if d = 0?

Lens systems

A good camera lens may

contain 15 elements and cost
a many thousand dollars
The best modern lenses may
contain aspherical elements

Human Eye

The eye has an iris like a

camera

Focusing is done by changing

shape of lens

Retina contains cones (mostly

used) and rods (for low light)

The fovea is small region of

high resolution containing
mostly cones

Optic nerve: 1 million flexible

fibers

http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bsci111b/eye/human-eye.jpg
Slidecredit:DavidJacobs

The Eye

The human eye is a camera!

Iris - colored annulus with radial muscles
Pupil - the hole (aperture) whose size is controlled by the iris
Whats the film?

photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina

Human Eye vs. the Camera

We make cameras that act similar to the human eye

Image Formation

Digital Camera

Film

The Eye

Insect Eye
We make cameras that act similar to the human eye

Fly

Mosquito

The Retina
Cross-section of eye

Ganglion axons
Ganglion cell layer
Bipolar cell layer
Receptor layer

Cross section of retina

Pigmented
epithelium

Retina up-close

Light

Two types of light-sensitive receptors

Cones
cone-shaped
less sensitive
operate in high light
color vision
Rods
rod-shaped
highly sensitive
operate at night
gray-scale vision

cone
rod
Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

Rod / Cone sensitivity

The famous sock-matching problem

Human Eye
Rods
Intensity only
Essentially night vision and peripheral vision only
Since we are trying to fool the center of field of view of human
eye (under well lit conditions) we ignore rods

Human Eye
Cones
Three types perceive different portions of the visible light
spectrum

Human Eye
Because there are only 3 types of cones in human eyes,
we only need 3 stimulus values to fool the human eye

Note: Chickens have 4 types of cones

Distribution of Rods and Cones

# R e c e p to rs/m m 2

Fovea
150,000
100,000
50,000
0

Rods

Blind
Spot
Rods

Cones

Cones

80 60 40 20 0

20 40 60 80

Visual Angle (degrees from fovea)

Night Sky: why are there more stars off-center?

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

The Physics of Light

Some examples of the spectra of light sources

# Photons

B. Gallium Phosphide Crystal

# Photons

A. Ruby Laser

400 500

600

700

400 500

Wavelength (nm.)

700

Wavelength (nm.)
D. Normal Daylight
# Photons

C. Tungsten Lightbulb
# Photons

600

400 500

600

700

400 500

600

700

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

More Spectra
metamers

The Physics of Light

% Photons Reflected

Some examples of the reflectance spectra of surfaces

Red

400

Yellow

700 400

Blue

700 400
Wavelength (nm)

Purple

700 400

700

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

The Psychophysical Correspondence

There is no simple functional description for the perceived
color of all lights under all viewing conditions, but ...
A helpful constraint:
Consider only physical spectra with normal distributions
mean
area

# Photons

400

variance

500

600

700

Wavelength (nm.)

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

The Psychophysical Correspondence

# Photons

Mean

blue

Hue

green yellow

Wavelength

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

The Psychophysical Correspondence

# Photons

Variance

Saturation

hi. high
med. medium
low

low

Wavelength

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

The Psychophysical Correspondence

Area

Brightness

# Photons

B. Area

Lightness

bright
dark

Wavelength

Stephen E. Palmer, 2002

Digital camera

A digital camera replaces retina with a sensor array

Each cell in the array is light-sensitive diode that converts photons to electrons
Two common types
Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
CMOS
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm

CCD Cameras

http://huizen.ddsw.nl/bewoners/maan/imaging/camera/ccd1.gif
Slidecredit:DavidJacobs

Sensor Array

CMOS sensor

Sampling and Quantization

Interlace vs. progressive scan

http://www.axis.com/products/video/camera/progressive_scan.htm

Progressive scan

http://www.axis.com/products/video/camera/progressive_scan.htm

Interlace

http://www.axis.com/products/video/camera/progressive_scan.htm

Color Sensing in Camera (RGB)

3-chip vs. 1-chip: quality vs. cost
Why more green?

Why 3 colors?
http://www.cooldic
http://www.cooldi tionary.com/words/Bayer-filter.wikipedia

Practical Color Sensing: Bayer Grid

Estimate RGB
at G cels from
neighboring
values
http://www.cooldictionary.com/
words/Bayer-filter.wikipedia

Image Formation

f(x,y) = reflectance(x,y) * illumination(x,y)

Reflectance in [0,1], illumination in [0,inf]

White Balance

White World / Gray World assumptions

Problem: Dynamic Range

The real world has
High dynamic range

1
1500
25,000

400,000
2,000,000,000

Is Camera a photometer?
Image

pixel (312, 284) = 42

42 photos?

Long Exposure

Real world

Picture

10-6

High dynamic range

10-6

106

106
0 to 255

Short Exposure

Real world

Picture

10-6

High dynamic range

10-6

106

106
0 to 255

Image Acquisition Pipeline

Lens
scene
radiance

Shutter
sensor
irradiance

(W/sr/m )

sensor
exposure

t
CCD

ADC
analog
voltages

Remapping
digital
values

Camera is NOT a photometer!

pixel
values

Varying Exposure

What does the eye sees?

The eye has a huge dynamic range

Do we see a true radiance map?