Animal Physiology

Dr. Kashif Asghar

Email: drkashifasghar@gmail.com

Pathophysiology:
how physiological processes are altered in disease
or injury

Physiology

How Organism function

Levels of organization of human

body

Chemical and Molecular Level

Other Elements:

Hydrogen
62%

Oxygen
26%
Carbon
10%

Nitrogen
1.5%
Elemental composition
of the human body

Calcium
0.2%
Phosphorus 0.2%
Potassium
0.06%
Sodium
0.06%
Sulfur
0.05%
Chlorine
0.04%
Magnesium
0.03%
Iron
0.0005%
Iodine
0.0000003%
Trace elements(see caption)

Water
67%
Proteins
Lipids20%
10%
Carbohydrates 3%
Molecular composition
of the human body

Levels of Organization:
Cellular
Basic units of
structure and
function

Levels of Organization: Tissue

Epithelial tissue

Connective tissue

Muscle tissue Nervous tissue

Cells with similar

functions grouped
into the 4 primary
tissues

SkinThe Largest Organ

Outer layer of protective cornified epidermis
Next layer the dermis contains connective tissue,
glands, blood vessels (BVs), nerves
Inner layer the hypodermis contains adipose tissue,
BVs, nerves

Stem Cells
Most cells in organs are highly specialized or
differentiated
Many organs retain small populations of adult stem cells
less differentiated so can become many cell types
Example: bone marrow stem cells can give rise to all of the different
blood cell types

Body-Fluid Compartments
Our body has both intracellular and
extracellular compartments:
Intracellular - inside cells (cytoplasm)
Extracellular - outside cells (blood plasma,
interstitial fluid)
Compartments separated by the cells plasma
membrane

Levels of Organization: Organ

System
Organism
Level
Organ System Level
Skeletal

Muscular

Nervous

Endocrine

Cardiovascular

Lymphoid

Respiratory

Integumentary

Digestive

Urinary
Reproductive

The heart

Organ
Level
Cardiac
muscle
tissue

Atoms in
combination

Heart muscle cell

Tissue Level

Complex protein
molecules
Protein filaments

Chemical or
Molecular Levels

Cellular Level

Levels of Organization: Organ

System
Organism
Level
Organ System Level
Endocrine
Nervous
Muscular
Skeletal
Integumentary

Cardiovascular

Lymphoid

Respiratory

Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive

Organs located in different regions of the body that

perform related functions are grouped into systems

Organismal Level
Atoms

Organelle
Smooth muscle cell

Molecule

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.

2 Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels

Blood vessel
(organ)

3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of
The human organism
is made up of manydifferent organs that work
together closely.
organ systems.

History of Physiology

Arist (384 322 BCE) speculated on body function

Erasistratus (304 -~250 BCE) considered the father of physiology applied physical laws to the study of human function

was not

Galen (130 -201 A.D.) - believed the working body

understandable without knowledge of its structure

William Harvey (15781657)-blood pumped in a closed system of

vessels

Claude Bernard (1813 1878) internal environment

remains constant
despite everchanging external
environment

Walter Cannon (1871 1945) coined the term homeostasis

Introduction to basic concepts of

physiology
Scientific Method

Levels of Organization

Homeostasis

- Feedback loops

Homeostasis

Our organ systems work together to maintain

homeostasis despite constant challenges

Homeostasis
Maintenance of a state of dynamic constancy
internal conditions are stabilized above and below a
physiological set point by negative feedback loops

Homeostasis and Negative

Feedback Loops
All physiological parameters have a set point X
Sensor: Detects deviation from set point
Integrating center: Determines response
Effector: Produces response to re-establish X

Homeostasis
Negative feedback loops body temperature,
blood sugar, blood pressure
Example: control of body temperature
Set point: 37 C
Sensor: Temperature receptors
Integrating center: Brain
Effector: sweat glands/muscles

Control of blood glucose level

(Insulin & Glucagon)

Homeostasis: Negative
Feedback
Example: control of blood sugar
Set point: 5 mmol/L
Sensor: pancreatic cells
Integration: Endocrine system
Effector: insulin and glucagon

Homeostasis: Negative
Feedback

Example: control of blood

pressure
Set point: normal blood pressure
Sensor: barorecptors
Integration Center: brain
Effector: heart / arteries

Homeostasis and Positive

Feedback
Does not maintain
homeostasis and is rare
Occurs when the body
needs to amplify a process
Producing blood clots
Creates the LH surge that
causes ovulation
Between the uterus and
oxytocin secretion during
childbirth

Scientific Method

Discovery-based science - making observations

and measurements regarding the natural world

Hypothesis-based science -conduct and analyze

experiments to test a hypothesis
1. develop a testable hypothesis to answer a scientific
question based on natural observations
2. design and conduct experiments in an objective,
unbiased, repeatable manner
3. analyze data and form conclusions that either support
or deny the hypothesis

Discovery-based Science
Is there a difference in resting heart rate between
people who exercise and those who dont?
- Measure heart rate in people who exercise
- Measure heart rate in people who dont exercise
- Analyze data and from conclusions

Study establishes a correlation (relationship)

between exercise and heart rate but not
causation

Hypothesis-based
Science
Hypothesis - a tentative
answer to a question
- an explanation on trial

Scientific Method
Hypothesis-based science:
Form hypothesis: question to be answered
People who exercise regularly have lower resting heart rate

Treatment group: individuals subject to the test condition

Randomly choose a group who must exercise (experimental group)

Control group: similar individuals not subjected to

treatment
Randomly choose a group that is not allowed to exercise (control)

Dependent variable: outcome you are measuring

Heart rate

Unbiased: double-blind (placebo) study

Random groups

Analyze data and form conclusions

Controlled experiment establishes causation

Scientific Method to Develop

New Drugs
Biomedical research - test effectiveness & toxicity
of a new drug
- first in vitro (tissue culture) then in vivo (animal
models)
Clinical trials performed:
Phase I Trials: Toxicity and metabolism tested in healthy
human volunteers (no toxic effects observed)
Phase II Trials: Effectiveness and toxicity tested in target
population (effective with minimal toxicity)
Phase III Trials: Widespread test of drug in diverse
population (gender, ethnicity, other health problems)
Phase IV Trials: Drug is tested for other potential uses
(sent to FDA for approval)

Circulatory system