TYPES OF MEAT

A. Cattle- meat of steers or heifers

1. Beef- cattle over 1 year when
slaughtered
2. Veal-cattle 3 to 14 weeks when
slaughtered
3. Calf-cattle 14 weeks to 1 year when
slaughtered
4. Bright cherry red color with external
layer of fat
*Marbling- flecks of fat spread throughout the

TYPES OF MEAT
B. Pork- the meat of swine
a. Hogs or pigs not more than 1 year of
age when slaughtered
b. Grayish pink/rose color with wellmarbled exterior
*Curing- treating pork with salt, sugar,
spices, chemicals; improves keeping
qualities and results in a taste change

TYPES OF MEAT
C. Sheep
1. Lamb- the smallest animal used for
meat
a.Animals not more than 14 months of age
when slaughtered
b.Pinkish/red color with fine texture

2. Mutton- meat from older sheep

a. Slaughtered over the age of two years
b. Dark red color with layer of cream-colored
exterior fat

Slaughtering of animals
Slaughter: The act of killing or
butcheringof animalsin a
"correct" way especially for food.
Essentials of Slaughter
1. Suffering should be minimum
2. Perfect bleeding should be ensured

Treatment of Animal prior to

slaughter

Resting
Watering
Feeding
Fasting

Resting
Keeping quality of meat reduced
without adequate resting due to:
Incomplete development of acidity
Invasion of microbes from intestine

Period of rest:
Depending on species, age, sex & breed
Usually 12-24 hours

Watering
Essential for:
Reduce microbes load in intestine
Facilitated skinning
Electrical stunning is more efficient

Fasting
Should stop feeding few hours before
slaughter
Importance:
Good bleeding carcass
Minimize migration of microbes from
intestine

10

Slaughtering practices and techniques

A. The Humane Method &

Conventional Techniques of
Slaughter
&
B. Traditional and Ritualistic
Slaughter

a. Jewish Method/Shechita
b. Halal method of slaughter
c. Jhakta (Sikh) method
11

A. The Humane Method &

Conventional Techniques

Complete state of
unconsciousness -mechanical,
electrical or chemical means
(Stunning)

Stunning- Painless, Motionless,

eliminating excitement and cruelty

12

Steps of Humane
Method

1. Stunning: Make unconscious prior to

slaughter
2. Bleeding: vertical hanging position (Head
down),

- knife through the neck behind the jaw

bone and below the first neck bone
- sever the blood vessels of
the neck and let out blood
- bleeding should be as
complete as possible
Vertical

Captive Bolt
Stun Gun

Stun site

Steps of Humane Method

(Cont.)
3. Skinning: Removing of skin from
the body
4. Eviscerating: open the animal
body to dislodge the contents and
produce the carcass
5. Postmortem Inspection: Carried
out by professional veterinarians
6. Special Measures: Stamped as
INSPECTED/ PASSED/ CONDEMNED
16

Humane Method
Advantages:
Painlessness (Stunning)
Eliminating excitement and
possible cruelty.

Disadvantages:
Disallowed by rituals and
established traditions
17

Stunning in humane Method

Stunning: Make unconscious prior
to slaughter
Methods of stunning:
Direct blowto skull using a club- sheep
& goats
Free bulletfired from a pistol into the
skull cattle & Horse (unsafe)
Captive-bolt pistols Cattle & horse
(safe)
Electrical stunning- 6080 V for few
seconds
18
Carbon dioxide stunning- 85% for 45s,

Captive-bolt
pistol

Aiming point for

stunning cattle

Electric stunner

Head tongs are also

suitable for stunning
pigs
19

Traditional and Ritualistic Slaughter

Differ from Humane Method

by:
Interpretation of the basic
tenets governing them
The animals must be in a state
of consciousness at the time
they are bled
The bleeding must also be
complete.

20

Jewish Method/Shechita

Formulated by following
the religious taboos
mu
l
a
T
Kosher: meat - right fulfilling the
d
requirement of Jewish law-specified in
the Talmud
Shochet: person appointed for
slaughtering
Shomer: person appointed
for limbs and meat processing and seal.
21

The rules of Jewish ritual

slaughter

* Must be alive, healthy & have suffered no injury

* Stunning- forbidden
* Diseased or lesion in meat (Terefa)- unfit for
consumption
* Animals that lie & cannot be made to rise must
not be slaughtered
* Slaughter the animals with a single deliberate
swift action of razor sharp knife.
* Structures severed: including the CA& JV
* Neck incision-complete, without pause, pressure,
stabbing, slanting or tearing
* Post mortem examination by Shochet making an
incision posterior to the xiphoid process
inserting the arm to detect any adhesion in the
22
thoracic cavity.

Jewish
Method/Shechita
Advantages:
No cruelty
respiratory activity, struggle>
oxyhemoglobin > good color meat

Disadvantages:
Animal remainconscious for a
considerable time
No stunning- Inhuman (many people)
Economic loss
23

Halal method
Most widespread
Laws are derived from the Koran
welfare of the animals is a major
consideration (Jewish faith also
apply to Muslims)
Death animals, consumptions of
blood and swine is forbidden.

24

Rules of halal method

Uttered - bismillahi Allahu
Akbar''
Done by - adult sensible Muslim
Stunning - allowed
Should done quickly
Casting- laid on its back
Neck vessels and passages
(oesphagus and trachea) are severed
by a single slash of a sharp knife
must not - in the sight of the beast
Prior to killing should feed water
25

Halal method (cont.)

Advantages
Same as Jewish
Struggling & cardiac actionefficient bleeding

Disadvantage
contamination by contents of
the stomach -waste of blood
26

Jhakta/Sikh method

Instant decapitation
process
Sikh, Hindu in the India
follows this method.
Limited to only to sheep and
goats
By only one blow head is
separated
27

Jhakta/Sikh method
(cont.)
Advantages
Easy and quick method

Disadvantages
Imperfect bleeding

28

Processing of
animal after
slaughter
29

Processing includes:

Skinning
Evisceration
Splitting
Washing
Dressing of carcasses &
Refrigeration
30

Skinning of animals
Precautions:
Outer side of the skin must never
touch the skinned surface

Operators must not touch the

skinned surface with the hand

31

Skinning of Cattle
Combined horizontal/vertical methods
Head: horn- remove, head-skinned,
Detached head- cutting through occipital
joint, Hang head- on a hook (Hanging animal)
Lower the carcass on its back- dressing
cradle
Legs:
Skin & remove the legs at carpal & tarsal
Hooves may be left attached to the hide
Forelegs should skinned after carcass is
lowered on to the dressing cradle to avoid
contaminated
32

Combined methods (cont.)

Flaying:
Cut skin-along middle line from sticking wound to tail
Skin brisket & flanks, working backwards toward
the round with long strokes & keeping knife up to
prevent cuts

Skin udders-without puncturing glandular tissue

Raise the carcass: half-hoist position shoulders
resting on cradle & rump at good height.

Anal region:
Clear skin carefully from around anus avoiding
puncturing it
Cut abdominal wall carefully around rectum
Tie off with twine to seal it
Skin the tail, raise carcass free of floor & finish flaying
33

Vertical methods
Modern plants have overhead railsHide removal is carried out on the
hanging carcass
Operations are similar to combined
method
It is not possible to reach the hide
from ground level more than one
operator is needed
Single operator-work with hydraulic
platform
Automatic hide pullers - high34

Fig: Correct
cutting lines
for hide
removal

Fig: Combined method

of skinning
35

Fig: Cattle are on hanging rail (Vertical

36

Evisceration

In all species care must be

taken not to puncture the
viscera

Fig: Evisceration of cattle

37

Evisceration of cattle
combined
Vertical
horizontal/ vertical
system
system
Carcass is cut
brisket is sawn
along midline
along midline
through brisket &
when the carcass
abdomen
on cradle
raised to half-hoist
Viscera will come
position and
out as the carcass
abdominal cavity is
in hanging position
cut carefully along
middle line.
Separated into
carcass is then fully
thoracic viscera,
hoisted to hang so that
paunch &
the viscera fall out
intestines
under
their
own
weight
Stomachs or intestines if use for
consumption they should tie separately.
38

Carcass splitting in
cattle
Work facing the back of the
carcass
Split the carcass down the
backbone (chine) with a saw or
cleaver from the pelvis to the
neck
If a cleaver is used, it may be
necessary to saw through the
rump and loin in older animals
The saw and cleaver should be
sterilized in hot (82C) water
between carcasses

Splitting
carcass
down the
vertebral 39

Carcass splitting in pig

Split down the backbone as for
cattle
But the head is generally left
intact

40

Carcass washing
Objectives:
Remove visible soiling
& blood stains
Improve appearance
after chilling

Recommendations :
Water must be clean
Soiled carcasses should be sprayed
immediately before the soiling material dries
Remove stains from the skinned surface,
internal surface, sticking wound & pelvic region.
41

Carcass dressing
Objectives:
Remove all damaged or contaminated parts
Standardize the presentation of carcasses

Recommendations:
Inspection should be done by veterinarian
Signs of disease/damage - entire carcass/offal may
be condemned
Factory personnel must not remove any diseased
parts until they have been seen by the inspector
otherwise they may mask a general condition
which should result in the whole carcass being
condemned.
Any instructions from the inspector to remove and
destroy certain parts must be obeyed.
42

Refrigeration of carcasses

Objectives:
Retard bacterial growth & extend the shelf-life

Recommendations:
Chilling meat after postmortem down to 0C &
keeping it cold will give a shelf-life of up to three
weeks
Must be placed in the cooler immediately
Must hang on rails & never touch the floor
deep muscle temperature of 67 C should be
achieved within:
28 to 36 hours in beef
12 to 16 hours for pork
24 to 30 hours for mutton
43

Refrigeration (cont.)
Humidity and Air current of cooler:
High air speeds (AS)-rapid cooling butevaporating wt losses
High RH- condensation on the carcass
surface favouring mould and bacteria
growth
Optimum RH=90% & AS=0.5m/s
Cooler-thoroughly washed before refilling
Personnel handling - should follow the
strictest hygiene
44

Splitting

Lowering on
skinning
cradle, start
faying, cut
feet, head &
tail
Gradually
lifting up to
dressing rail,
continue
Completion
faying
of faying,
cut
breastbone
Eviscerati
on

Bleeding on
bleeding rail

Stunning

Sequence of operation (combined

method)

45

Splitting

Eviscerati
on

Mechanical
hide
pulling

Transfer
from
bleeding rail
to dressing
rail

Bleedin
g

Stunnin
g

Sequence of operation (vertical

method)

46

SCALDING AND
DEHAIRING OF
PIGS

47

SCALDING (pig)
Scalding in 60C for about
six minutes
Low temperature: hair will
not be loosened
high a temperature: skin cooked and
the hair difficult to remove
simplest equipment consists of a tank of hot water
into which the pig is lowered by a hoist
To reduce contamination, scalding water should be
changed frequently
Effectiveness scald-hair comes away easily in
rubbing with thumb
Thermostatic controls and timers
48

DEHAIRING (pig)
Done by bell scraper or knife/
Dip the pig in a bath containing a hot
resin adhesive:
The pig is removed from the bath when
resin is about to set
Require less & produces a very clean skin

Water
bath

Scrap
er
Fig: Machine contain both hot water bath &

49

Postmortem changes and

ageing of meat
These includes:
Acidification of the muscle
after animal the animal is killed
The development of rigor
mortis
The resolution of rigor and
The tenderization of meat (due
to ageing)
50

Acidification of the muscle

At the death
blood circulatory
system fails supply of oxygen,
glucose & free FA to muscles ceases
anaerobic metabolism

ATP : regenerated through breakdown of glycogen

by glycolysis
oxidative decarboxylation & phosphorylation will
stop
Glycogen broken down in anaerobic condition so
LA accumulates (can not remove by circulation)

51

Glycoge
n
Fructose 1,6-diphosphate
Dihydroxyacetone
Glyceraldehyde 3phosphate
phosphate
Glycerol 1,3-diphosphate
Glyceric acid 1,3diphosphate
Glyceric acid 3phosphate
Phosphoenol pyruvte

Pyruvate
Lactic acid
Fig : Pathway of lactic acid production from glycogen in
anaerobic condition after circulatory failure
(Glycogenolysis).

52

Acidification of the muscle

(cont.)
The process of acidification
normally takes 48 h in pigs, 12
24 h in sheep and 1536 h in
cattle
Poultry meat the initial pH fall
may be relatively rapid- in
turkeys breast muscle pH fall to 6
by 1015
53

Fig: The pHu is inversely proportional to the

concentration of the initial glycogen concentration
54

Importance of
acidification

55

The development of rigor mortis

Fig: muscle histology

56

Mechanism of muscle
contraction

ATP interacts with a thick

filament head
Head to extend into what is called it's "high energy
position
Release of Ca from sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Ca attach to actin filaments causing them to
change shape so that docking sites for the myosin
filament heads appear
Myosin filament heads bind to these docking sites
(formation of actomyosin) and undergo a change
in shape that pulls on the thin filament bringing it
closer to the center of the sarcomere
Many sarcomeres contract simultaneously their muscle doe
Again ATP binds to myosin head to start the
contraction cycle

57

What happen in rigor

mortis?
ATP production stop when acidification develop
The actinomyosin persist because , ATP
require to extend the myosin head to
remove binding with actin and start
contraction cycle
(ATP also require for releale of Ca)

Development of rigor
mortis

Note:
Rigor occurs faster in Animals that have undergone violent exercise
at death- quick rigor
longer-term preslaughter stress
Rigor occurs slower in- cold weather
58

Resolution of rigor and tenderization of meat

The myofibrils become fragmented

by controlled homogenization of the
muscle in aqueous solutions -can be
measure by myofibrillar
fragmentation index
Suspensions that are more
opalescent indicate smaller particles,
reflecting a greater fragmentation
59

The rate of
tenderization
Varies with temperature %& species

faster at higher temperatures

80% tenderness:

About 8 h after death of the bird,

whereas beef takes 10 days

These differences in the rate of

tenderization lead to different
recommended ageing times prior to
cooking the meat

60

The process of conditioning

Conditioning is the term applied to
this natural process of tenderization
Two types of process:
changes in the connective tissue
Components of the meat or weakening
of the myofibrils

61

The mechanism of
tenderization
Activity of the proteolytic enzymes-Calpains
and cathepsins
Calpains is more important
These are lysosomal and sarcoplasmic
enzyme
These are activated by Ca, so called
calcium-activated sarcoplasmic factor
(CASF)
The degrade troponin-T, some collagen
cross-links and mucopolysaccharides of the
CT ground substance
They degrade actin and myosin below a pH
of 5 so this is not occur in normal muscle 62

DFD meat
Color of flesh is darker and drier than
normal
Occurs in cattle: Pre-slaughter stress
Normal animal pH falls to 5.5-5.8 but
in stressed animals falls to 7-6.8
Resulting meet are poor keeping
quality

63

PSE meat
In stress susceptible animals PH falls
to 5.8-5.6 when the carcass is warm
Found in pork
Resulting meat appears pale, soft ,
exudative and unattractive
Occurs due to:
High environmental temp.
Rough ante mortem handling
Fightings
64

Edible By-Products
Also called variety meats
Organs and body parts other than the carcass
What are some examples?
Liver, heart, tongue, tripe, sweetbread
Tripe-lining of the stomach
Sweetbread-thymus gland

Avg. 1100# steer produces ~36# of variety meats

Per capita consumption of variety meats is only ~9#
Much is exported

Lard and Tallow

Shortenings, margarines, pastries, candies
Inedible tallow goes into soap, lubricants, feed, fatty acids
~45% of inedible tallow, and ~20% of edible tallow are
exported

Inedible By-Products
Tallow, hides, inedible organs
Some skins are edible

Many pharmaceuticals originate from

these by-products

Cholesterol
Corticosteroids
Epinephrine
Heparin
Rennet
Cortisone

Inedible By-Products
Hides
Cattle & buffalo hides account for ~80% of hides
in the world
$1.3 b exported from U.S. each year
Some goat and sheep skins ~$33m/yr.
One cowhide-144 baseballs, 20 footballs, 18
volleyballs, 12 baseball gloves, 12 basketballs
Leather use in the U.S.-40% upholstery, 50%
shoes, 10% other
Hide weighs>30lbs., skins<30lbs.
Skins w/ wool left on called pelts

Inedible By-Products
Value of hides can be reduced, how?
Hides worth ~$1/lb.
Fed steers produce ~65-75lbs. Of hide
After hides are treated (blue stage) they lose about 15
lbs.
Preserves for shipping
Value is increased to $80-90
60lb. Hide produces ~40 sq. ft. of leather

Tanners add ~$500m annually to hides

Hides are the most valuable by-product
7m tons of by-product ($8b) used to make pet food
Ex.

Inedible By-Products

Pet food exports tripled since 1990

Dog food sales ~$9m, extra $1b spent
in treats
Rendered fats and oils are also used in the
manufacture of biodiesel
Currently used in some public
transportation systems