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Wireless Communications
Module 3
The Modern Wireless
Communication Systems
1
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Outline of Lecture 3
Introduction
Multiple access
Evolution of Cellular Networks
Various Definitions and Terminologies
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User n
User 2
Total bandwidth
User 1
User n
User 2
User 1
Mobile
Stations
Frequency 1
Frequency 2
Frequency n
Base Station
Time
Channel Allocation
Bandwidth structure
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Time
1
Time
2
User n
User 1
User 2
User 2
User n
Time
n
Mobile
Stations
Base Station
Time
Frame structure
Slot allocation
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Code
7
User 1
...
User 2
User n
Frequency
Time
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CDMA (2)
Information bits
Code at
transmitting end
Transmitted signal
Received signal
Code at
receiving end
Decoded signal
at the receiver
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IS-95
CDMA
US/South Korea
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Need for 4G
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Satellite
Picocell
Microcell
Macrocell Global
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Transmission Capacity
Mobility
Vehicular
Pedestrian
Universal Mobile
Broadband radio
Telecommunications
System
Mobile Broadband System
Stationary
0.01
0.1
10
100
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Terminology (1)
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Terminology (2)
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Mobile Station
Base Station
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Terminology (3)
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Terminology (4)
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Summary of Module 3
Multiple access
Evolution of Cellular Networks
Various Definitions and Terminologies
28
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End of Module 3
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Module 4
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Outline of Module 4
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Subscriber
Unit
Cells
MSC
PSTN
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The cells with the same colour use the same set of
frequencies. The cell cluster is outlined in bold.
Here the cluster size is seven and the reuse factor is 1/7.
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(1)
Signal
strength (in
dB)
Cell j
Cell i
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
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(2)
Signal strength
(in dB)
Cell j
Cell i
-60
-90
-100
-60
-70
-80
-70
-80
-90
-100
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(3)
Ideal cell
(2-10 km
radius)
Square
cell
BS
Triangular
cell
MS
Hexagonal
cell
MS
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3
To find the distance of a point P(u, v) from the origin
use x - y to u - v co - ordinate transformations :
r 2 x2 y2
x u cos 30o
y v u sin 30o
r (v uv u )
2
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D = (i2 + ij + j2)1/2
The number of cells in a cluster, N, is given by N = i2
+ ij + j2
where i and j are non-negative integers.
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Example
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j direction
i=2
i=2
j=1
3 i
i=2
i=2
j=1
i=2
60
i direction
1
i=2
j=1
j=1
j=1
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j=2
j=2
i=2
i=2
j=2
i=3
j=2
j=2
j=2
i=3
i=2
i=3
i=2
j=2
i=2
j=2
i=2
j=2
j=2
i=3
j=2
j=2
i=3
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Reuse Ratio
For hexagonal cells, the
reuse distance is given by
Cluster
R
F7
F6
D 3N R
F2
F5
F3
F1
F1
F4
F7
F6
F2
Reuse factor is
q
F3
F1
F1
eu
R
st
di
se
F5
F4
ce
an
D
54
D
3N
R
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Summary of Module 4
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End of Module 4
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Module 5
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Outline of lecture 5
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Recapitulation
High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of
each base station to a small geographic region called a
cell.
Same frequencies/timeslots/codes are reused by
spatially-separated base stations.
A switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed uninterrupted from one cell to another.
The hexagonal model of cells is universally adopted.
For hexagonal cells, the reuse distance is given by
D 3N R
D
The reuse factor is given by q 3 N
R
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3 Erlangs
3600 Sec call
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tn
P ( n, t )
n!
e t
S (t ) 1 e t
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S!
1
,
k
S
Erlang B formula
a
k 0 k !
where S is the number of channels in a group.
S 1 ! S a i 0 i !
Erlang C formula
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S = 2 channels
100 Mobile Stations
Generating on an average 30 requests/hour
Average holding time T = 360 seconds (6 minutes).
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100 cells.
Each cell has S = 20 channels.
The users average = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
How many number of users can be supported if the allowed
probability of blocking is 2%?
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100 cells.
Each cell has S = 20 channels.
The users average = 2 calls/hour
The average duration of each call (T) is 3 min.
How many number of users can be supported if the allowed
probability of blocking is 0.2%?
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Handoff
When a mobile moves into a different cell while
the call is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to
the new BS.
The handoff operation involves identifying a
new BS and the allocation of voice and control
signals associated with the new BS.
Handoffs must be performed successfully, as
infrequently as possible, and must be
imperceptible to the user.
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Signal
strength due
to BSi
BSi
Pj(x)
Pi(x)
BSj
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Handoff Strategies
In the first generation analog cellular systems,
the signal strength measurements are made by
the BS and are supervised by the MSC.
In the second generation systems that use
TDMA technology, Mobile Assisted HandOffs
(MAHO) are used.
In MAHO, every MS measures the received
power from the surrounding BS and continually
report these values to the corresponding BS.
Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a
neighbouring BS exceeds that of the current BS.
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Soft Handoff
CDMA spread spectrum cellular system
provides a unique handoff capability.
Unlike chanelized wireless systems that assign
different radio channel during a handoff (called
hard handoff), the spread spectrum MS share
the same channel in every cell.
The term handoff here implies that a different BS
handles the radio communication task.
The ability to select between the insantantaeous
received signals from different BSs is called soft
handoff.
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Summary of Module 5
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End of Module 5
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Module 6
Interference and System
Capacity
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Outline of Module 6
Summary of what we have learnt so far
Interference
Cochannel
Adjacent Channel
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Recapitulation
Cell Capacity and Reuse As N C
Traffic Theory
Erlang B formula Probability of an arriving call being blocked
Erlang C formula Probability of an arriving call being delayed
Handoff stategies
Hard Handoff
Soft Handoff
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Interference
Interference is a major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio. It limits capacity
and increases the number of dropped calls.
Sources of interference include
another mobile in the same cell,
a call in progress in a neighbouring cell and
other BS operating in the same frequency band.
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More on Interference
There are two major types of interferences:
Cochannel Interference (CCI)
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the
same frequency set. These cells using the
same frequency set are called cochannel
cells.
ACI is caused due to the signals that are
adjacent in frequency.
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Second tier
cochannel Base
Station
D6
D5
D1
D4
D2
D3
Serving Base
Station
90
Mobile Station
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CCI (2)
Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome
by increasing the carrier power of the
transmitter.
This is because, any increase in the transmitter
power increases the interference to other
cochannel cells (creating our own noise!).
For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent
of the transmitted power and depends on the
cell radius, R, and the distance to the nearest
cochannel cell, D.
To reduce CCI the cochannel cells must be
physically separated.
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CCI (3)
The cochannel reuse ratio, Q = D/R.
It determines the spatial separation relative
to the coverage distance of the cell.
For a hexagonal cell pattern,
Q = D/R = (3N )
Thus, a smaller value of Q provides a larger
capacity, but higher CCI.
Hence there is a trade off between Capacity
and Interference.
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I
i 1
Pr P0
d0
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D
i
i 1
I
m
m
n
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I 6 R
3N
D6
D5
MS D
1
D4
D3
Hence, S/I is
independent of the
Cell Radius
D2
BS
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Example (1)
Design Parameters:
Desired S/I = 15 dB
Path loss exponent, n = 4 (dense urban, e.g., CP)
What is the required reuse factor?
First try N = 4
D/R = 3.46 S/I = (1/6)(3.46)4 = 24.0 = 13.80 dB
Since this is greater than the desired 15 dB, we must
move to the next higher reuse distance.
Next try N = 7
D/R = 4.58 S/I = (1/6)(4.58)4 = 73.5 = 18.66 dB
Hence, the required reuse factor = 1/7.
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Example (2)
Design Parameters:
Desired S/I = 15 dB
Path loss exponent, n = 3 (suburban, south Delhi)
What is the required reuse factor?
First try N = 7
D/R = 4.58 S/I = (1/6)(4.58)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
Since this is less than the desired 15 dB, we must move to
the next higher reuse distance.
Next try N = 12
D/R = 6.00 S/I = (1/6)(6.00)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB
Hence, the required reuse factor = 1/12.
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Example (3)
Design Parameters:
Desired S/I
S/I =
= 15
15 dB
dB
Desired
Path loss exponent, n = 2 (rural)
40
n=4
Signal-to-Interference
35
30
25
n=3
N=7
20
N = 12
15
n=2
10
5
0
10
15
20
25
30
Cluster Size
98
35
40
45
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R
D-R
D
D-R
D+R
D+R
S
R n
I 2 D R n 2 D n 2 D R n
1
n
n
n
2 Q 1 2 Q 2 Q 1
99
MS
BS
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30
n=4
Average
25
20
Worst Case
18 dB
n=3
15
n=2
10
N=7
0
10
N = 12
12
14
Cluster Size
100
16
18
20
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ACI (2)
Near Far effect: When an interferer
close to the BS radiates in the adjacent
channel, while the subcriber is far away
from the BS.
BS
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ACI (3)
ACI can be reduced by
Careful filtering
Careful channel assignment
I d2
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ACI (4)
Example: Suppose the subscriber is d1 =
1000 m from the BS and an adjacent channel
interferer is at d2 = 100 m from the BS.
Path loss exponent is n = 3.
Prior to filtering the Signal-to-Interference
ratio will be
n
3
S d1
1000
3
10
30 dB
I d2
100
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ACI (5)
Example: The frequency separation
between each channel in a cell should be
made as large as possible while assigning
them.
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Summary of Module 6
Types of Interference
Cochannel Interference
Cochannel Interference Calculations
Average case
Worst case
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End of Module 6
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Module 7
Improving Coverage and
System Capacity
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Outline of Module 7
Summary of what we have learnt so far
Improving capacity and coverage
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Recapitulation
Cell Capacity and Reuse As N C
Types of Interference
Cochannel Interference
Cochannel Interference Calculations
Average case
Worst case
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Improving Capacity
As the demand for service increases, system
designers have to provide more channels per unit
coverage area.
Common techniques are: Cell Splitting, Sectoring
and Microcell Zoning
Cell splitting increases the number of BS deployed
and allows an orderly growth of the cellular system.
Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control
interference and frequency reuse.
Microcell Zoning distributes the coverage of a cell and
extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach places.
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Example (1)
4 cell cluster
7 cell cluster
Smaller Cells
7 cell cluster
12 cell cluster
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Example (2)
Requirement for
higher capacity
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Example (3)
R
Pr (new cell boundary) PT2
2
PT1
PT2 n
2
For n = 3,
PT2
PT1
8
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Example (4)
Suppose the congested service
area is originally covered by
5 cells,
each cell with 80 channels.
Capacity = 5 x 80 = 400
After cell splitting, Rnew = R/2
We now have 24 cells
New Capacity = 24 x 80 = 19200
For n = 4, the transmit power for
the new BS = 12 dB lower.
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c
120o
120o
b
(a) Omni
d
90o
b
(d) 90o sector
60o
a
b
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X
A
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BS
Zone
Selector
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Summary of Module 7
Improving capacity and coverage
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End of Module 7
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