Direct Current Circuits

DC Circuits

Units of Chapter

1.0 Circuit Analysis

2.0 Direct Current
3.0 Electromotive Force
4.0 Resistors in Series
5.0 Resistors in Parallel
6.0 Kirchhoffs Rules
7.0 RC circuits

1.0 Circuit Analysis

Simple electric circuits may contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in various
combinations.
For some circuits, analysis may consist of combining resistors.
In more complex complicated circuits, Kirchhoffs Rules may be used for analysis.
These Rules are based on conservation of energy and conservation of
electric charge for isolated systems.
Circuits may involve direct current or alternating current.

Introduction

2.0 Direct Current

When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called direct
current.
Most of the circuits analyzed will be assumed to be in steady state, with
constant magnitude and direction.
Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant,
the battery produces direct current.
The battery is known as a source of emf.

Section 28.1

3.0 Electromotive Force

The electromotive force (emf), , of a battery is the maximum possible voltage
that the battery can provide between its terminals.
The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force.
The battery will normally be the source of energy in the circuit.
The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative
terminal.
We consider the wires to have no resistance.

Section 28.1

3.1 Internal Battery Resistance

If the internal resistance is zero, the
terminal voltage equals the emf.
In a real battery, there is internal
resistance, r.
The terminal voltage, V = Ir
The emf is equivalent to the open-circuit
voltage.
This is the terminal voltage when no
current is in the circuit.
This is the voltage labeled on the
battery.
The actual potential difference between
the terminals of the battery depends on
the current in the circuit.
Section 28.1

3.2 Load Resistance

The terminal voltage also equals the voltage across the external resistance.
This external resistor is called the load resistance.
In the previous circuit, the load resistance is just the external resistor.
In general, the load resistance could be any electrical device.
These resistances represent loads on the battery since it supplies the energy to
operate the device containing the resistance.

Section 28.1

3.3 Power
The total power output of the battery is
P = I V = I
This power is delivered to the external resistor (I 2 R) and to the internal resistor
(I2 r).
P = I2 R + I 2 r
The battery is a supply of constant emf.
The battery does not supply a constant current since the current in the circuit
depends on the resistance connected to the battery.
The battery does not supply a constant terminal voltage.

Section 28.1

Example 1: Battery with internal resistance.

A 65.0- resistor is connected to
the terminals of a battery
whose emf is 12.0 V and
whose internal resistance is 0.5 .
Calculate
(a)the current
in the circuit,
(b)the terminal voltage of the
battery, Vab, and
(c)the power dissipated in the
resistor R and in the
batterys internal resistance r.

4.0 Resistors in Series

When two or more resistors are connected end-to-end, they are said to be in
series.
For a series combination of resistors, the currents are the same in all the
resistors because the amount of charge that passes through one resistor must
also pass through the other resistors in the same time interval.
The potential difference will divide among the resistors such that the sum of the
potential differences across the resistors is equal to the total potential difference
across the combination.

Section 28.2

Resistors in Series, cont

Currents are the same
I = I1 = I 2
Potentials add
V = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2
= I (R1+R2)
Consequence of Conservation of
Energy
The equivalent resistance has the same
effect on the circuit as the original
combination of resistors.

Section 28.2

Equivalent Resistance Series

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +
The equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is the
algebraic sum of the individual resistances and is always greater than any
individual resistance.
If one device in the series circuit creates an open circuit, all devices are
inoperative.

Section 28.2

Equivalent Resistance Series An Example

All three representations are equivalent.

Two resistors are replaced with their equivalent resistance.

Section 28.2

Some Circuit Notes

A local change in one part of a circuit may result in a global change throughout
the circuit.
For example, changing one resistor will affect the currents and voltages in all
the other resistors and the terminal voltage of the battery.
In a series circuit, there is one path for the current to take.
In a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for the current to take.

Section 28.2

5.0 Resistors in Parallel

The potential difference across each resistor is the same because each is
connected directly across the battery terminals.
V = V1 = V2
A junction is a point where the current can split.
The current, I, that enters junction must be equal to the total current leaving that
junction.
I = I 1 + I 2 = (V1 / R1) + (V2 / R2)
The currents are generally not the same.
Consequence of conservation of electric charge

Section 28.2

Equivalent Resistance Parallel, Examples

All three diagrams are equivalent.

Equivalent resistance replaces the two original resistances.

Section 28.2

Equivalent Resistance Parallel

Equivalent Resistance
1
1
1
1

K
Req R1 R2 R3
The inverse of the equivalent resistance
of two or more resistors connected in
parallel is the algebraic sum of the
inverses of the individual resistance.
The equivalent is always less than
the smallest resistor in the group.

Section 28.2

Resistors in Parallel, Final

In parallel, each device operates independently of the others so that if one is
switched off, the others remain on.
In parallel, all of the devices operate on the same voltage.
The current takes all the paths.
The lower resistance will have higher currents.
Even very high resistances will have some currents.
Household circuits are wired so that electrical devices are connected in parallel.

Section 28.2

SERIES

Current, I

Voltage, V

Req

PARALLEL

Same in each R

Same across each R

Example

Series and Parallel Resistors

Two 100 resistors are connected in a) in series b) in parallel to a 24V
battery. What is the current through each resistor and what is the
equivalent resistance of the circuit?

Solution
a)

All the current that flows out of the battery passes

first through R1 and then R2 since they lie along
a single path. So, I same for both resistors

V = V1 + V2
V = IR1 + IR2= I (R1+R2)
I = V / (R1+R2) = 24 / ( 100 + 100 ) = 0.120A
Req = R1+R2 = 100 + 100 = 200
Or
Req = V / I = 24 / 0.120 = 200

Solution
b) Any given charge (or e-) can flow through only one or the other of
the two resistors. Just as river may break into 2 streams when
going around an island, here too the total current I from the
battery split to flow through each resistor, so

I = I1 + I2 , V = 24 V
I = I1 + I2 = V / R1 + V / R2= (24 / 100 )+ (24 / 100)
= 0.24 A + 0.24 A = 0.48 A
Req = V / I = 24 / 0.48 = 50
Or
1/ Req = (1 / 100) + (1/100) = 2/100 = 1/50
Req = 50

Combinations of Resistors
The 8.0- and 4.0- resistors are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent, 12.0
The 6.0- and 3.0- resistors are in
parallel and can be replaced with their
equivalent, 2.0
These equivalent resistances are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent resistance, 14.0

Section 28.2

Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Example 2: Circuit with series and parallel resistors.

How much current is drawn from the battery shown?
First we find the equivalent
resistance of the two resistors in
parallel, then the series
combination of that with the third
resistance.
For the two parallel resistors, R =
290
The series combination is then
690 ,
so the current in the battery is V/R
= 17 mA.

Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Example 3: Current in one branch.
What is the current through the 500- resistor shown? (Note: This is the same circuit
as in the previous problem.) The total current in the circuit was found to be 17 mA.

The total current is 17 mA,

so the voltage drop across
the 400 resistor is
V = IR = 7.0 V.
This means that the voltage
drop across the 500
resistor is 5.0 V
and the current through it is
I = V/R = 10 mA.

Exercise
1.

Find the equivalent resistance of

three resistors connected in parallel.
R1=12, R2=12 and R3=6.

2.

Find the equivalent resistors of

three resistors connected in series.
R1=12, R2=12 and R3=6.

3.

Find the equivalent resistance of the

circuit, between A and B.

Exercise
4. Suppose that the
battery in figure is 12V
and the resistors are
R1=50, R2=150.
a) What are the
current, I, I1 and I2
b) What is the total
resistance of the circuit

Exercise
5.Three resistors in
figure are R1=25,
R2=50 and R3=100.
a) What is the total
resistance of the
circuit?
b) What are the
currents I1, I2 and I3 for
a 12V battery.

Exercise

6. Three resistors in
figure are R1=80,
R2=25 and R3=15.
a) find the total
resistance of the circuit
b) What are the
currents, I and I2 and
the voltage across the
battery, I1=0.3A.

Gustav Kirchhoff
1824 1887
German physicist
Worked with Robert Bunsen
Kirchhoff and Bunsen
Invented the spectroscope and
founded the science of
spectroscopy
Discovered the elements cesium
and rubidium
Invented astronomical
spectroscopy

Section 28.3

Kirchhoffs Rules
There are ways in which resistors can be connected so that the circuits formed
cannot be reduced to a single equivalent resistor.
Two rules, called Kirchhoffs rules, can be used instead.

Section 28.3

Kirchhoffs Junction Rule

Junction Rule
The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.
Currents directed into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and
those leaving as -I.
A statement of Conservation of Charge
Mathematically,

I 0

junction

Section 28.3

More about the Junction Rule

I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
Required by Conservation of Charge
Diagram (b) shows a mechanical
analog

Section 28.3

Kirchhoffs Loop Rule

Loop Rule
The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero.
A statement of Conservation of Energy
Mathematically,

V 0

closed
loop

Section 28.3

More about the Loop Rule

Traveling around the loop from a to b
In (a), the resistor is traversed in the
direction of the current, the potential
across the resistor is IR.
In (b), the resistor is traversed in the
direction opposite of the current, the
potential across the resistor is is + IR.

Section 28.3

Loop Rule, final

In (c), the source of emf is traversed in
the direction of the emf (from to +),
and the change in the potential
difference is +.
In (d), the source of emf is traversed in
the direction opposite of the emf (from
+ to -), and the change in the potential
difference is -.

Section 28.3

Equations from Kirchhoffs Rules

Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as each time you write an
equation, you include in it a current that has not been used in a previous junction
rule equation.
In general, the number of times the junction rule can be used is one fewer
than the number of junction points in the circuit.
The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as a new circuit element
(resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation.
In order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number of independent
equations you need to obtain from the two rules equals the number of unknown
currents.
Any capacitor acts as an open branch in a circuit.
The current in the branch containing the capacitor is zero under steady-state
conditions.
Section 28.3

Kirchhoffs Rules
Problem Solving: Kirchhoffs Rules
1. Label each current, including its direction.
2. Identify unknowns.
3. Apply junction and loop rules; you will need as many independent
equations as there are unknowns.
4. Solve the equations, being careful with signs. If the solution for a current
is negative, that current is in the opposite direction from the one you have
chosen.

Problem-Solving Strategy Kirchhoffs Rules

Conceptualize
Study the circuit diagram and identify all the elements.
Identify the polarity of each battery.
Imagine the directions of the currents in each battery.
Categorize
Determine if the circuit can be reduced by combining series and parallel
resistors.
If so, proceed with those techniques
If not, apply Kirchhoffs Rules

Section 28.3

Problem-Solving Strategy, cont.

Analyze
Assign labels and symbols to all known and unknown quantities.
Assign directions to the currents.
The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned directions when
applying Kirchhoffs rules.

Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that provides new
relationships among the various currents.
Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed to solve for the
unknowns.
To apply the loop rule, you must choose a direction in which to travel
around the loop.
You must also correctly identify the potential difference as you cross
various elements.
Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities.
Section 28.3

Problem-Solving Strategy, final

Finalize
Check your numerical answers for consistency.
If any current value is negative, it means you guessed the direction of that
current incorrectly.
The magnitude will still be correct.

Section 28.3

Kirchhoffs Rules
Example 5: Using Kirchhoffs rules.
Calculate the currents I1, I2, and I3 in the three branches of the circuit in the
figure.

Example
Steps:
6V

I1

1. Draw the loop current

a

2. Apply junction rule: I3 = I1+ I2

3. Take closed circuit formed by each source:
(if direction of current is followed all terms
are +ve)

I2

2
b
4V

I3
d

6V= 3I1+ 8I3 = 3I1+ 8(I1+ I2) = 11 I1 + 8I2

and
4V =2I2 + 8I3 = 2 I2 + 8(I1+ I2) = 8 I1 + 10I2

4. Solving the three equations give: I1 = 14/23

I2 = -2/23
The minus sign indicate that the current I2 flows
in the opposite direction to that shown in the

Example
I1

I2

12 V

50

6V

1 -

I1 = - I2 - I3 (1)
Loop abefa: 6V - 12 V= -200 I3 + 100 I1
-6 = -200 I3 + 100(- I2 - I3 )

200

= -200 I3 -100I2 - 100 I3 )

100
f

At b: I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

I3
e

=-300 I3 -100I2 (2)

Loop bcdeb: 12V = - 50I2 + 200I3 (3)

Solving (2) & (3) : (3) X 2 24= -100I2 + 400I3 (4)

(2) - (4) : -30= -700 I3
I3 =30/700= 0.043 A
From (2): 100I2 = -300(0.043) I2 = - 0.069 A
and (1) I1 = - 0.026 A

Example
Determine the currents in all resistors for the circuit shown.
I1

5
10 V
100

I1 = I2 + I 3

10= 5I1+ 4I2 = 5I2+ 5I3+ 4I2 = 9I2+ 5I3 (2)

10

4
I2

(1)

5= -4I2 + 10I3

I3
5V

(2) X 2 20= 18I2+ 10I3

(4)

(4) (3): 15 = 22I2 I2 = 15/22A

From (2): 5I3 = 10 9(15/22) I3 = 17/22A

From(1) : I1 = 16/11 A

(3)

RC Circuits
In direct current circuits containing capacitors, the current may vary with time.
The current is still in the same direction.
An RC circuit will contain a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor.

Section 28.4

RC Circuit, Example

Section 28.4

Charging a Capacitor
When the circuit is completed, the capacitor starts to charge.
The capacitor continues to charge until it reaches its maximum charge (Q = C).
Once the capacitor is fully charged, the current in the circuit is zero.
As the plates are being charged, the potential difference across the capacitor
increases.
At the instant the switch is closed, the charge on the capacitor is zero.
Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero.
The potential difference across the capacitor matches that supplied by the
battery.

Section 28.4

Charging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

The charge on the capacitor varies with
time.

q(t) = C (1 e-t/RC)
= Q(1 e-t/RC)
The current can be found
I( t )

t RC
e
R

is the time constant

= RC

Section 28.4

Time Constant, Charging

The time constant represents the time required for the charge to increase from
zero to 63.2% of its maximum.

has units of time

The energy stored in the charged capacitor is Q = C

Section 28.4

.
2

Discharging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit

When a charged capacitor is placed in
the circuit, it can be discharged.
q(t) = Qe-t/RC
The charge decreases exponentially.

Section 28.4

Discharging Capacitor
At t = = RC, the charge decreases to 0.368 Qmax
In other words, in one time constant, the capacitor loses 63.2% of its initial
charge.
The current can be found

I t

dq
Q t RC

e
dt
RC

Both charge and current decay exponentially at a rate characterized by = RC.

Section 28.4

Household Wiring
The utility company distributes electric power to individual homes by a pair of
wires.
Each house is connected in parallel with these wires.
One wire is the live wire and the other wire is the neutral wire connected to
ground.

Section 28.5

Household Wiring, cont

The potential of the neutral wire is
taken to be zero.
Actually, the current and voltage
are alternating
The potential difference between the
live and neutral wires is about 120 V.

Section 28.5

Household Wiring, final

A meter is connected in series with the live wire entering the house.
This records the households consumption of electricity.
After the meter, the wire splits so that multiple parallel circuits can be distributed
throughout the house.
Each circuit has its own circuit breaker.
For those applications requiring 240 V, there is a third wire maintained at 120 V
below the neutral wire.

Section 28.5

Short Circuit
A short circuit occurs when almost zero resistance exists between two points at
different potentials.
This results in a very large current
In a household circuit, a circuit breaker will open the circuit in the case of an
accidental short circuit.
This prevents any damage
A person in contact with ground can be electrocuted by touching the live wire.

Section 28.5

Electrical Safety
Electric shock can result in fatal burns.
Electric shock can cause the muscles of vital organs (such as the heart) to
malfunction.
The degree of damage depends on:
The magnitude of the current
The length of time it acts
The part of the body touched by the live wire
The part of the body in which the current exists

Section 28.5

Effects of Various Currents

5 mA or less
Can cause a sensation of shock
Generally little or no damage
10 mA
Muscles contract
May be unable to let go of a live wire
100 mA
If passing through the body for a few seconds, can be fatal
Paralyzes the respiratory muscles and prevents breathing

Section 28.5

More Effects
In some cases, currents of 1 A can produce serious burns.
Sometimes these can be fatal burns
No contact with live wires is considered safe whenever the voltage is greater than
24 V.

Section 28.5

Summary
A source of emf transforms energy from some other form to electrical energy.
A battery is a source of emf in parallel with an internal resistance.
Resistors in series:

Summary
Resistors in parallel:

Kirchhoffs rules:
1. Sum of currents entering a junction equals sum of currents leaving it.
2. Total potential difference around closed loop is zero.

Summary

RC circuit has a characteristic time constant:

To avoid shocks, dont allow your body to become part of a complete circuit.