Chapter 5

Consumer Learning
Consumer
Learning
and Memory
and Memory

Why Marketers are Concerned

about How Consumers Learn

Marketers want to teach consumers about

their products

product attributes
where to buy them
how to use and dispose of them

They want to know how effective they have

been in communicating with the consumer

directly, through advertisements

Indirectly, through product appearance,
packaging, price and distribution channels

What is Learning?

Generally, learning is a process by which

changes occur in the content or organization
of an individuals long-term memory
From a marketing standpoint, learning can be
thought of as the process by which
individuals acquire the purchase and
consumption knowledge and experience that
they apply to future related behavior

Range of Learning Situations

Learning occurs at various levels of consumer

involvement
Low-level involvement: consumers have little
or no motivation to process the information
High-involvement learning: consumers are
highly motivated to process the information

Learning Theories

1.
2.

There are many theories about how people

learn
They fall into two general categories:
Behavioral learning theories
Cognitive theories

Behavioral Learning Theories

1.
2.

Are also referred to as stimulus-response theories

because based on premise that observable
responses to specific external stimuli signal
learning has taken place
When a person responds in a predictable way to a
known stimulus, he or she is said to have learned
There are two behavioral theories with relevance
to marketing:
Classical conditioning
Instrumental/operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning

The theory that conditioned learning results

when a stimulus that is paired with a stimulus
that elicits a known response serves to
produce the same response when used alone

Classical Conditioning
Schematic Presentation of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)

Unconditioned
Stimulus (US)

Co
me
s

Elicits

to

Eli
ci

Unconditioned
Response (UR)

The use of a well-known, admired individual

to advertise a product can condition
consumers to have positive feelings about
the product
Cause marketing

Strategic Applications of
Classical Conditioning

1.
2.
3.

Three basic concepts derive from classical

conditioning
Repetition
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination

1. Repetition

Increases the strength of the association

between a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus (learning)
It is used by advertisers when scheduling
media exposure for an advertising campaign
Too much repetition can lead to advertising
wearout
Consumers may become annoyed with
repetitive ads and develop a negative image
of the product as a result

2. Stimulus Generalization

Learning relies not only on repetition, but on

peoples ability to generalize--that is, respond
in the same way to slightly different stimuli
Explains why some manufacturers try to
make their generic/store brands similar in
appearance to name brands

1.
2.
3.

Marketers use this principle to take

advantage of a well-known and trusted
brand in a number of ways
Product line extensions
Product form extension
Product category extension
Referred to as the halo effect

3. Stimulus Discrimination

Opposite of stimulus generalization

Results in the selection of a specific stimulus
from among similar stimuli
Forms the basis for marketers positioning
strategy
Permits marketers to differentiate their
product from competitors (through, e.g.
different features, colors, ingredients, etc.)

Operant (Instrumental)
Conditioning

B.F. Skinner
Learning occurs through trial and error
Habits are formed as a result of rewards for
certain behaviors
Consumers who try different brands, models,
styles until they find the one that fits are
engaged in instrumental learning

Operant Conditioning
Schematic Presentation of Operant Conditioning

Specific
Behavior

Reinforcement
or Punishment

Increased or Decreased
Probability of Response

Reinforcement
A reward given to acknowledge a desired
behavior and increase the probability it will
be repeated
Positive reinforcement

1.

Events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific

response

Negative reinforcement

2.

A negative outcome that also serves to

encourage a specific behavior
Fear appeals

Punishment

Punishment discourages behavior as

opposed to encouraging behavior to avoid a
negative result

Extinction

When a learned response is no longer

reinforced, it diminishes to the point of
extinctioni.e., there is no longer a link
between the stimulus and the expected
reward

Strategic Applications of
Instrumental Conditioning

Customer Satisfaction
In order to keep its customers, a marketer or
business must maximize positive
reinforcement
This can be done through the product itself
Can also be done with other elements of the
purchase situation

Reinforcement Schedules

The pattern in which reinforcements are

given
Marketers have found that while product
quality needs to remain high to satisfy
consumers, non-product positive
reinforcement does not have to be offered
every time


1.
2.
3.

Three types of reinforcement schedules:

Continuous/total (every time)
Systematic/fixed ratio (every nth time)
Random/variable ratio

Reinforcement Schedules &

Forgetting
Intermittent Reinforcement
Behavior Maintenance

Behavior Maintenance

Continuous Reinforcement

Time

Forgetting occurs more quickly

Time

Forgetting occurs gradually over time

and the residual effects of learning
persist

Cognitive Learning Theory

Learning based on mental activity (i.e.

thinking and problem-solving)
Unlike simpler organisms, we learn not only
by trial and error, but by

searching for information

evaluating the information, and
making a decision about what is best for us

Marketing Implications of
Cognitive Learning Theory

Primary implication is to emphasize the

importance of providing information to
consumers
Providing information can be a promotional
strategy as well

Cognitive Associative
Learning
Also called Neo-Pavlovian theory

Learning involves not only the acquisition of

new reflexes; it is the acquisition of new
knowledge about the world
Under this theory, consumers are viewed as
information seekers who use logical and
perceptual relations among events, along
with their own preconceptions, to form a
sophisticated representation of the world

Implications for Marketers

Marketers draw on both cognitive and

operant conditioning theories
Providing information about a product (e.g.,
eggs are OK to eat) draws on cognitive
theory
Providing rewards (e.g., frequent flyer miles,
coupons, etc.) draws on classical
conditioning theory

Vicarious (Observational)
Learning

The process through which individuals learn

behavior by observing the behavior of others
and the consequences of such behavior
Role models tend to be people consumers
admire because of traits such as appearance,
accomplishment, skill, or social class

Another alternative form of observational

learning involves representation of negative
consequences of not using the advertised
product

Brand Loyalty

1.

2.

A consumers consistent preference for and

purchase of a specific brand
In high-involvement purchases (e.g., a car)
it reduces risk and facilitates selection
In low-involvement purchases (e.g., tissues)
it saves time and effort
Brand loyalty generally results from
consistent positive experiences with a
company and/or its products

1.
2.
3.

There has been a recent decline in brand

loyalty
Boredom or dissatisfaction with the products
Variety-seeking
Increased concern with price
To counter these actions, marketers have
adopted a number of programs (e.g.,
frequent flyer) that reward brand loyalty