1.

1 The importance of having a transport

system in some multicellular organisms
o Unicellular organisms and some simple multicellular organisms obtain
oxygen and nutrients directly from the external environment and
eliminate carbon dioxide and other waster products by diffusion
through the plasma membrane due to their large total surface area to
volume (TSA/V) ratio.
o In larger multicellular organisms, there is a decreased TSA/V ration and
cells are often located far away from the external surface of the body.
o Thus, they have well developed circulatory system due to the
increased need for oxygen and nutrients to be supplied to the cells for
metabolism and waste products to be removed as exchange of
substances by simple diffusion is too slow to sustain cellular activities.

1.2 Concept of circulatory system

o The circulatory system in a large organism involves flow of fluid
through the tissues and organs of the organism, allowing for the
transport and exchange of substances such as nutrients, oxygen
and waste products.
o In large complex animals, the circulatory system includes the
medium, vessels, and pump.
o The medium is the fluid that flows in the circulatory system,
transporting materials around the body. In many animals, blood is
the medium for transport while haemolymph is the medium for
transport in some invertebrates such as insects.
o The blood is carried by a system of large and small vessels.
o The pump in the body is the muscular heart that creates the
pressure that forces the blood nutrients and oxygen to be carried
to the cells and waste products to be carried away from the cells
through the blood vessels.

Blood
o Blood transports:
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Absorbed food materials
Excretory waste products
o Blood consists of:
45% cellular components
55% plasma

Heat
Hormones
Water to tissues

Cellular components
o Erythrocytes
Contains haemoglobin which transport oxygen to the respiring
tissues.
o Leucocytes
Responsible for the defence of organisms against diseases.
Granulocytes have granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei.
-Neutrophils are phagocytes
-Eosinophils help to control allergic responses
-Basophils secrete heparin to prevent blood from clotting
Agranulocytes have clear cytoplasm and not-lobed nuclei
-Monocytes are phagocytes
-Lymphocytes produces antibodies
o Platelets
Help in blood clotting

Plasma
o Water
o Dissolved substances
Dissolved gases
Mineral salts
Nutrients
Glucose
Fatty acid
Amino acid
Vitamins
Enzymes

Hormones
Waste products
Plasma proteins
Albumin
Globulin
Fibrinogen

Blood vessels
Arteries

Capillaries

Veins

Transport blood away

from the heart and
branch into arterioles

Connect arterioles to
venules

Transport blood to the

heart. Veins are joined
by venules.

Transport oxygenated
blood (except the
pulmonary artery)

Act as the sites for

exchange of substances
with the cells

Transport deoxygenated
blood (except the
pulmonary vein)

Thick muscular wall

Thinnest wall, one cell in Thinner wall

thickness

No valves except
semilunar valves at the
base of the aorta and
pulmonary artery

No valves

Valves present to
prevent back flow of
blood

Blood flows in pulses

under high pressure

No pulses. Pressure
lower that arteries but

No pulses. Blood flows

under lower pressure

Heart
o Sino-atrial node (SAN) located in the right atrial wall acts like a
pacemaker which initiates the heartbeat by generating a wave
of excretory impulses which spread to the two atria, causing
them to contract simultaneously.
o Blood is then forced from the atria into the ventricles.
o Atrio-ventricular node (AVN) lying at the base of the right
atrium is then stimulated and generates impulses that
conducted by bundle of His and Purkinje fibres to the
ventricular walls.
o This causes the contraction of both ventricles to pump the
blood out of the heart.

o Left ventricle is thicker and more muscular to generate pressure to

pump blood to the whole body.
o Blood in the veins flow back to the heart by the contraction of the
skeletal muscles.
o When the body moves, the skeletal muscles around the veins
contract and press on the veins, causing the increase in blood
pressure that forces open the valves and pushed the blood towards
the heart.
o Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure.
o It sends impulses to the cardiovascular control center in the medulla
oblongata of the brain.
o Sympathetic nerve carrying impulses increases the heart rate and
blood pressure while parasympathetic nerve slows down the heart
rate.

Circulatory systems in Fish, Amphibian and

Humans
Aspects
Fish
Humans
Amphibians
Circulatory system

Single

Complete double

Incomplete double

Number of atrium

Number of ventricle

Oxygenated blood
flow

From gills to cells

From lungs to the

left atrium then to
the left ventricle
and then to cells

From lungs to the

left atrium then to
the ventricle and
then to cells
Oxygenated blood is
mixed with
deoxygenated blood
in the ventricle

Form cells to the

right atrium then to
the right ventricle
and then to lungs

From cells to the

right atrium then to
the ventricle and
then to lungs

Deoxygenated blood From cells to heart

flow
and then to gills

1.3 Blood clotting

o Blood clotting prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is
damaged to the blood vessels.
o Impaired blood clotting mechanism:
Haemophilia lack of the gene for the production of certain clotting
factors
Thrombus local blood clot on the damaged rough inner wall of the
artery
Thrombosis blockage of artery
Embolus thrombus that carried away
Embolism blockage of the blood flow when embolus is trapped in an
artery
Angina chest pain caused by the partially blocked coronary artery
Heart attack total blockage of an artery
Stroke blockage of blood to the brain cells

Mechanism of blood clotting

o Blood clotting
1.Injury in the blood vessels
2.Blood vessels around the wound constrict to reduce blood loss.
3.Platelets become sticky and clump together to plug the wound.
4.Platelets release thrombokinase.
5.Thrombokinase convert prothrombin in to thrombin.
6.Formation of prothrombin in the liver requires vitamin K.
7.Thrombin converts soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
8.Fibrin fibres form meshwork of thread over the wound, trapping the
cellular components.
9.Blood clots forms and dries to from scab.
10.New skin is formed under the scab and it falls off when the wound heals.

1.4 The lymphatic system

o Interstitial fluid
High hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of the capillaries
forces some fluid out through the capillary wall into the
intercellular spaces forming interstitial fluid
It forms the internal environment of the body and enables the
exchange of substances to and fro the cells.
10% of the interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries and
is called lymph
o Lymph
Lymph is similar in composition to blood plasma but has no
erythrocytes, platelets or large protein molecules.
It contains a higher number of lymphocytes then blood.

o Lymphatic systems
Lymphatic system consists of a network of lymphatic
capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and certain
organs such as the thymus gland, spleen and tonsils.
It collects the interstitial fluid and returns it to the circulatory
system
Lacteal absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins and transport
them to the blood circulatory system
Lymph nodes that contain phagocytes filter out pathogens.