Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
2nd law: no Q W
with 100% efficiency
Efficiencies
Engine
Efficiency
Gasoline
18~20%
Diesel
up to 40%
Steam
~8%
Gas Turbine
~ Diesel
Power Plant
Efficiency
Coal
36%
Nuclear
30%
Bouncing ball:
reversible
irreversible
Spontaneous process:
order disorder
( statistically more probable )
Efficiency
Net Work
Heat Input
(any engine)
U 0 W Q
(any cycle)
Qh Qc
Qh
(Simple engine)
Qc
Qh
Carnot Engine
Ideal gas:
AB:
Heat abs.
Qh Q AB
B C:
Work done
3
V
n R Th ln B
2
VA
WBC U BC nR Tc Th
C D:
Heat rejected:
Qc QCD n R Tc ln
VD
VC
D A:
WDA U DA
Work done
Adiabatic processes:
1. isothermal expansion: T = Th , W1 = Qh > 0
2. Adiabatic expansion: Th Tc, W2 > 0
3
nR Th Tc
2
Th VB 1 Tc VC 1
1
D
Tc V
Th V
1
A
VC VB
VD VA
ecarnot 1
Qc
T
1 c
Qh
Th
work done
efficiency
W Qh Qc 240 J 100 J
e 1
Qc
100 J
1
Qh
240 J
e 1
288 K
Th
140 J
58.3 %
Th
288K
691 K 418 C
1 e
work
required
perfect refrigerator: moves heat from cool to hot reservoir without work being done on it.
2nd law of thermodynamics ( Clausius version ):
There is no perfect refrigerator.
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a body of
lower temperature to a body of higher temperature.
Hypothetical
engine,
e = 70%
Carnot
refrigerator,
e = 60%
Turbine
Generator
Electricity
Boiler
Condenser
fossil-fuel : Th = 650 K
Nuclear :
Th = 570 K
Tc = 310 K
Heat source
Cooling
water
Waste
water
Actual values:
efossil ~ 40 %
enuclear ~ 34 %
Prob 54 & 55
ecar ~ 20 %
e fossil 1
310 K
650 K
enuclear 1
310 K
46 %
570 K
52 %
ecombined 1
273 8
84 %
273 1450
eturbine 1
273 500
273 1450
55 %
esteam 1
273 8
273 500
64 %
Refrigerators
COP
Qc
W
Qc
Qh Qc
Tc
Th Tc
1st law
COP is high if Th Tc .
COP
Tc
Th Tc
273 18
30 18
5.31
167 kJ
Q
5.31
COP
Table 17.1
31 kJ
Heat Pumps
Heat pump: moves heat from Tc to Th .
Heat pump as AC :
COPcooling
Qc Qc Tin
W Qh Qc Tout Tin
Qh
Tin
Qh
Tin Tout
W
Qh Qc
Ans.
Only 1/3 of fuel energy is converted to electricity at a power plant.
With this in mind, the gas heater is a better choice.
Cogeneration:
Waste heat from electricity generation used for low needs.
If the electricity comes from a more efficient gas-fired power plant with e = 48%,
compare the gas consumption of your two heater choices.
Gas heater:
Electric heater:
Electric heater consumes 0.85/0.48 = 1.8 times the fuel consumed by gas heater.
Entropy
Carnot cycle (reversible
processes):
Qc Tc
Qh Th
Qh = heat absorbed
Qc = heat rejected
Qc Qh
Tc
Th
lukewarm: cant do W,
dQ
C T 0
Qh , Qc = heat absorbed
C = Carnot cycle
C = any closed path
dQ
T
S = entropy
[S]=J/K
Heat absorbed:
Heat rejected:
Qh Q AB n R Th ln
VB
VA
Qc QCD n R Tc ln
VD
VC
Adiabatic processes
Th VB 1 Tc VC 1
1
D
Tc V
Th V
1
A
Q ABC QAB
V
n R Th ln B
VA
S ABC
Q AB
V
n R ln B
Th
VA
Q ADC QDC
V
n R Tc ln C
VD
S ADC
QDC
V
n R ln C
Tc
VD
VC VB
VD VA
S ABC
Sc
Tf
Tc
S h
Tf
Th
S Sc Sh
Q Q
c h
T1 T2
S 0
Q Q
c c
T1 T 2
Q
dQ
c
T
T1
Q
dQ
h
T
T2
reversible processes
T2 = some medium T.
1 1
Qc
T1 T2 0
T2 T1
Qad.exp. = 0
pvacuum 0
Wad . exp. 0
U ad . exp. 0
Tad . exp. 0
S
p = const.
Cant do work
degraded.
dQ
1
Q
dQ
T
T
T
W
1
T
T
n R ln
V2
V1
V2
V1
n RT
dV
V
isothermal
W Q n R T ln
V2
V1
After adiabatic expansion, gas cannot do work, while its entropy increases by
V
Q
n R ln 2
V1
T
Eunavailable T S
Eunavailable Tmin S
Coolest T in system
Eunavailable Tmin S n R T ln
V2
V1
150 L 2 L
2.0
L
54 kJ
Microstates
Macrostates
probability of
1/4
macrostate
2 =
1/4
Macrostates
probability of
macrostate
1/16 = 0.06
4 1/16 = =0.25
6 1/16 = 3/8 = 0.38
4 1/16 = =0.25
1/16 = 0.06
S k B ln
# of micro states
S 0
S 0 in the universe
Universe tends to disorder
Life ?