Weld thermal cycle

An intense, moving heat source is applied to the material which

creates a weld pool. A large part of the applied heat flows
through the parent material on each side of the joint.
It is useful to predict the form of temperature gradient about
this heat source to understand: width and penetration depth of a
weld as a function of heat input, microstructural change in the
HAZ and residual stresses.
Rosenthal’s solution to heat flow equations: A point heat
source moving at a constant speed

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂T
+ + = 2λ T= temperature, K
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t
t=time

ξ = x − vt L= thermal conductivity
For a given welding process, weld geometry and material type, the
cooling time through the range 800 – 500 oC (∆ t8-5 ) is constant and
depends on heat input.
Thermal cycles experienced by indicated locations in the heat-
affected zone of an arc weld made with 100,000 joules/in. for ½ in.
steel plate at room temperature
Effect of energy input and preheat temperature on the peak
temperature distribution in ½ in. steel plate welded at room
temperature with manual shielded metal-arc welding
Effect of initial plate temperature on thermal cycles in heat-affected
zone of welds in ½ in. steel plate using covered electrodes showing
comparison for 100,000 joules/in. and 47,000 joules/in. energy inputs
Effect of energy input on temperature isotherms at surface of ½ in.
steel plate. Upper portion – 100,000 joules/in., 24 V, 208 A,
3 in./min; lower portion – 50,000 joules/in., 24 V, 208 A, 6 in./min
Effect of plate thickness on the thermal cycles in the weld heat-
affected zone of manual shielded metal-arc welds in steel plate.
Energy input – 47,000 joules/in. Initial plate temperature – 80OF
(80OC).
Effect of plate thickness and heat input on the time to cool from
800 oC to 500 oC (∆ t8-5 ). Lines: calculated values, points:
experimentally measured values.
Calculated T-t plot during welding of 30 mm steel plate
 Welding Preheat Cooling rate at 650OC
Conditions Temperature
Energy Input (OC)
(J/mm) For Butt Welds in ½ For Fillet
in. Plate Welds
(oC/s) (oC/s)

2,000 20 11 44
2,000 120 7 34
2,000 205 5 20
4,000 20 4 10
4,000 205 1.7 5
Nomogram for calculating
the cooling time in CO2 /
O2 arc welding.
Schematic diagram of a heat affected zone (HAZ) of a single pass HSLA
steel weld with the Fe-C phase diagram
α  allotriomorphic ferrite
α w  widmanstätten ferrite
α a  acicular ferrite
Typical microstructure in low carbon, low alloy steel weldments

1: Grain boundary ferrite, 2: polygonal ferrite

3: side plate ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite 4:acicular ferrite
Typical microstructure in low carbon, low alloy steel weldments

5: bainite
Typical microstructural constituents of weld metal: C-Mn Steel
Weld metal microstructure showing fine acicular ferrite : HSLA 80 Steel
 J , ygr e ne t ca p mI

Impact strength at –15oC of SAW metal of TS 785 MPa

Schematic diagram of a heat affected zone (HAZ) of a single pass HSLA
steel weld with the Fe-C phase diagram
Various region in the HAZ of a
MMA-welded normalised fine-
grained pearlitic steel

a: fusion zone

b: grain growth zone

c: grain refined zone

d: partially transformed
zone and zone of
spheroidised carbide

e: Parent metal
Region of partial transformation in HAZ of C-steel
 HAZ microstructure in HSLA
80 steel showing polygonal
and acicular ferrite

HSLA 80 steel: Base metal

SAW 12 mm plate, HSLA 80 (Cu containing, aged)

Sen et al, LCFA – 92 pp 602; microstructure shown earlier.

 Formation of crack in HAZ

Conditions for cracking:

•Hardness above a critical level (>350 VHN is crack sensitive)
•Presence of tensile stresses
•Presence of hydrogen (cold cracking or delayed cracking)
Hardness depends on cooling rate (heat input, thickness) and
composition (carbon equivalent).
CE < 0.35 No risk of cracking except at high CR (thick section)
0.35 < CE < 0.55 preheat to avoid cracking (costly)
CE > 0.55 both preheating and postheating to avoid cracking
Hydrogen enhances risk of cracking (cold cracking or delayed
cracking). Can occur at –100 oC to 200 oC

Hydrogen cracks originating in the HAZ

(note, the type of cracks shown would not be
expected to form in the same weldment)

Crack along the coarse grain

structure in the HAZ
Causes

There are three factors which combine to cause cracking:

•hydrogen generated by the welding process

•a hard brittle structure which is susceptible to cracking
•tensile stresses acting on the welded joint

Cracking usually occurs at temperatures at or near normal ambient. It is

caused by the diffusion of hydrogen to the highly stressed, hardened part of
the weldment.
Graville Diagram