Power Series

Radii and Intervals of Convergence

First some examples

Consider the following example series:

k 0 k !
What does our intuition tell us about the convergence or
divergence of this series?
What test should we use to confirm our intuition?

Power Series
Now we consider a whole family of similar series:

2k

k 0 k !

k 0

1
k!

k 0

4
k!

k 0

2
1

k!

214k

k 0 k !

What about the convergence or divergence of these

series?
What test should we use to confirm our intuition?
We should use the ratio test; furthermore, we can
use the similarity between the series to test them
all at once.

xk

k 0 k !

How does it go? We start by setting up the appropriate limit.

Why the absolute values?
k 1
Why on the xs and not elsewhere?
x
k 1
x
k!
x
k 1 !

lim
0
lim
lim
k
k
k

k
k

1
!

k 1
x
x
k!

Since the limit is 0 which is less than 1, the ratio test tells us
that the series

xk

k 0 k !
converges absolutely for all values of x.

xk
The series
is an example of a power series.
k 0 k !

What are Power Series?

Its convenient to think of a power series as an infinite
polynomial:
Polynomials:

2 x 3 x 2 12 x 5

1 ( x 1) 3( x 1) 2 1

( x 1)3

Power Series:

1 2 x 3x 2 4 x 3 5 x 4 K (k 1) x k
x 3 x 3

3!

5!

x 3

7!

x 3

9!

k 0

1 x 3

2k 1 !
k 0

In general. . .
Definition: A power series is a (family of) series of the
form

a (x x ) .
n

n 0

In this case, we say that the power series is based at x0 or

that it is centered at x0.
What can we say about convergence of power series?
A great deal, actually.

Checking for Convergence

I should use the ratio
test. It is the test of
choice when testing for
convergence of power
series!

Checking for Convergence

Checking on the convergence of

1 2 x 3x 2 4 x 3 5 x 4 K (k 1) x k
k 0

We start by setting up the appropriate limit.

lim
k

(k 2) x
(k 1) x

k 1
k

(k 2) x
x
lim
k ( k 1)

The ratio test says that the

series converges provided
that this limit is less than 1.
That is, when |x|<1.

What about the convergence of

x 3 x 3

3!

5!

x 3

7!

x 3

9!

1 x 3

2k 1 !
k 0

We start by setting up the ratio test limit.

k 1

lim
k

x3
2(k 1) 1 !
k

x3
2k 1 !

lim
k

lim
k

x3

k 1

x3

1 2

(2k 1)!
(2k 3)!

x 3 1 2 3 4 K 2k 1 2k (2k 1)

3 4 K 2k 1 2k (2k 1) 2k

x3
lim
k 2 k 2 2 k 3

2 2k 3

Since the limit is 0 (which is

less than 1), the ratio test says
that the series converges
absolutely for all x.

Now you work out the convergence of

x 3 x 3

x 3

x 3

1 x 3

2k 1
k 0

Dont forget those

absolute values!

Now you work out the convergence of

x 3 x 3

x 3

x 3

1 x 3

2k 1
k 0

We start by setting up the ratio test limit.

k 1

lim
k

x3
2(k 1) 1
x3
2k 1

lim
k

x3

k 1

x3

(2k 1)
(2k 1)
x 3 lim
x3
k

(2k 3)
(2k 3)

What does this tell us?

The power series converges absolutely when |x+3|<1.

The power series diverges when |x+3|>1.
The ratio test is inconclusive for x = -4 and x = -2. (Test these
separately what happens?)

Convergence of Power Series

What patterns can we see? What conclusions can we draw?
When we apply the ratio test, the limit will always be
either 0 or some positive number times |x-x0|. (Actually,
it could be , too. What would this mean?)
If the limit is 0, the ratio test tells us that the
power series converges absolutely for all x.
If the limit is k|x-x0|, the ratio test tells us
that the series converges absolutely when k|
x-x0|<1. It diverges when k|x-x0|>1. It fails
to tell us anything if k|x-x0|=1.

What does
this tell us?

Suppose that the limit given by the ratio test is k | x - x0 | .

We need to consider separately the cases when
k |x-x0| < 1 (the ratio test guarantees convergence),
k |x-x0| > 1 (the ratio test guarantees divergence), and
k |x-x0| = 1 (the ratio test is inconclusive).
This means that . . .

Recall that k 0 !

1
gwhen | x - x0 | the series converges absolutely.
k
1
gwhen | x - x0 | the series diverges.
k
1
gwhen | x - x0 | we don't know.
k

Recapping
1
gwhen | x - x0 | the series converges absolutely.
k
1
gwhen | x - x0 | the series diverges.
k
Must test
1
endpoints
gwhen | x - x0 | we don't know.
separately!
k
x0 1

x0

1
x0
k

Conclusions

n
a
(
x

x
)
0
Theorem: If we have a power series n
,
n 0

It may converge only at x=x0.

It may converge for all x.

x0

Radius of
convergence is 0
Radius of conv. is
infinite.

It may converge on a finite interval centered at x=x0.

x0 R

x0

x0 R

Radius of conv. is
R.

Conclusions

n
a
(
x

x
)
0
Theorem: If we have a power series n
,
n 0

It may converge only at x=x0.

It may converge for all x.

x0

It may converge on a finite interval centered at x=x0.

x0 R

x0

x0 R