As a means of water purification, slow sand filters constitute a simple,

efficient design and may be constructed using local resources

A SSF entails a porous bed of graded sand fortified by an underlying
layer of gravel. Raw water enters the filter bed and undergoes
purification.
Principal application: treatment of low turbidity water (<20 NTU) for
distribution as potable water (maintenance intervals shorten with
water > 20 NTU and SSF may not function at all when water turbidity
> 200 NTU)
Mechanisms for removing impurities: sedimentation, adsorption,
straining, chemical and microbiological processes
SSFs extricate solids, precipitates, turbidity, and bacterial particles
from a water supply

A SSF constitutes a porous bed of graded sand which is fortified by an

underlying layer of gravel
Raw water enters the filter medium from a raw water tank
Note: a pre-filter or other form of pre-treatment is required if the raw
water has a high turbidity (>20 NTU) or if it is necessary to reduce the
oxygen demand of the raw water (see card #13)
passes through the filter and undergoes purification
exits into the treated water tank

If the tank is
being fed by
pumps:
situated at a
higher
elevation than
the filter to
allow for a
generous
operating
range

Inlet to the
treated water
tank should be
slightly more
elevated than
top of filter
sand; prevents
filter from
being
accidentally
drained if
treated water
tank is
emptied

Filtration Rate = flow (m3/h) / filter surface area (m2)

Expressed as m3/m2/h or m/h
Maximum recommended rate: 0.3 m/h
Ideal rate: 0.2 m/h

Because the biological film requires 2-7 days to re-develop after each
cleaning, recommended use of 2 SSF filters
Used interchangeably
Second SSF put in operation approximately 7 days before routine
cleaning of the first SSF (maintain constant supply of potable water)
Exceptional case: Oxfam filter; requires only one filter (see card #21)

The SSF system incorporates five parts:

The Housing (Tanks)

The Supernatant

The Schmutzdecke

The Filter Sand

The Underdrain Medium

For most SSF designs, there must be three tanks: one to harbor the raw water,
another one to house the filter, and a final one to hold the treated water
Filter size and number depends upon filtration rate and water demand
Raw water tank size depends upon operating range, turbidity and settling rate
Treated water tank size depends upon contact time required for chlorination
and whether storage is to be supplied on site or at some other time and place
Note: if a pre-filter is necessary (turbidity >20 NTU), another tank is required to
house it
Appropriate kinds of tanks: 1) those with non-reactive surfaces
(plastic tanks)
2) fiberglass lined galvanized tanks
3) poly or concrete tanks with a
capacity of 200 to 100,000 liters

If flow is stopped for more than one day, a tank must be drained
entirely (in this case, anaerobic conditions in the filter sand will have
been engaged, infusing the water with a lasting bad taste)
Because recontamination of treated water can occur, periodic
chlorination of treated water tanks is necessary
Algae in the filter tank is not necessarily harmful

The supernatant is the water situated above the filter sand

Purpose of the supernatant: 1) provides hydraulic head to water
treatment
2) engenders a detention time of a
couple of hours for purification
3) supplies a temperature buffer that
both regulates the filter and
maintains the Schmutzdecke
Most designs require a minimum depth of 0.5-1.5m

Situated directly underneath the Schmutzdecke

Contains a biological zone that continues the purification initiated by
the Schmutzdecke (lowest depth of this region: ~ 0.4-0.5 m)
May be collected from local riverbanks
Minimum depth 0.6 meters (sufficient for short term use of SSF);
nevertheless, SSFs often include an extra 0.3-0.5 m depth of sand to
allow for successive scrapings
Effective size (D10): 0.15-0.35mm
Uniformity coefficient (D60/D10): <3
Maximum size: 3mm
for guidance; in practice almost
Minimum size: 0.1mm
any sand will work
The sand must be replaced approximately every 3-4 years

Pre-cleaning of sand required to

remove fine and organic material
If source of sand is a river, this
cleaning can be done at a spot
along the river where there is
plentiful water
Another means: the drum
arrangement- 1) fill drum with
sand
2) add water
3) permit water to
flow into bottom of
drum
4) wash silt away
in the overflow
5) continue
flushing until water
becomes clear

Constitutes a series of gravel layers encompassing the underdrain

pipes
Note: finest gravel situated directly beneath the sand; coarsest gravel
envelops underdrain pipes
Alternative to layers of gravel: interpose a layer of synthetic fabric
between filter sand and gravel encompassing underdrains
Gravel should be of a uniform size for easy passage of water and large
enough not to pass through slots in drains
All gravel underlaid by 50 mm layer of sand to protect tank lining
Purpose: 1) supplies an unbarred channel for treated water
exiting out of filter bed
2) fortifies bed of filter sand
3) prevents sand from migrating to the slots

While,
specifically, this
diagram refers to
the Oxfam
package, its
general design is
characteristic of
most SSFs

Scraping the Schmutzdecke: 1) drain the supernatant (usually by

continuing filtration with no influent)
to 20 cm below sand surface
2) scrape off 1 inch of Schmutzdecke
and underlying sand from top of
filter bed
3) refill the filter from bottom of bed
using filtered water to preclude air
entrapment
Common filter run time (time between cleanings): 2-20 weeks,
variation depends upon raw water turbidity (which depends upon the
seasons) and filtration rate

Personnel requirements for construction of sand filter package:

unskilled personnel can construct an SSF package in a matter of 3-4
weeks; also, this group can initiate sand preparation even before the
tanks are designed and ordered
Personnel requirements for operation: one day operator and one night
operator per SSF package are necessary
Training: operators must be trained to maintain a constant flow rate,
head, and temperature

Advantages

Considerably reduces
pathogenic bacteria, viruses
and cysts, to engender potable
water w/o further purification
No machinery necessary

Disadvantages

Can only effectively purify low

turbidity water (w/o other means
of purification, i.e. pre-filter)

Design

encompasses one revolutionary development-a geotextile filter fabric:

A) situated on top of the sand filter
B) retains much of the matter strained from the
untreated water during purification and therefore
amount of sand removed during cleaning
C) use reduces cleaning interval and time taken for filters to recover their
biological treatment ability: allows the package to be operated with just one filter
as opposed to 2 filters in parallel
This arrangement is only adequate if there is a regular supply of chlorine to
disinfect product water for period immediately after filter cleaning when filter is
recovering
Entails the general SSF design: the Schmutzdecke as well as the other SSF
components situated underneath the fabric
Note: Oxfam package includes all components of SSF except treated water tanks,
which must be ordered separately

Cleaning the Filter

1) the water is lowered to approximately 200mm below the sand
surface
2) the fabric is rolled up and taken out of the tank
3) after having been washed, the fabric is reinstated on the sand bed
Note: because the fabric in its entirety may be difficult to move,
cutting up the fabric into smaller pieces is recommended
Depending upon the conditions, it may also be necessary to remove a
10 mm layer of sand from the top of the filter bed

A roughing filter design that may be applied to the construction of slow

sand filter
uses as a filter chamber an excavated basin covered with a plastic sheet

Construction
Uses a 200 liter drum as a filter bed
Includes a pre-filter when turbidity of entering water > 30 NTU

General Information
Filtration rate must be < 0.2 m/h
Necessary to maintain constant flow of entering water (tank storing
raw water must be higher than filter to induce constant rate through
gravity)
Size of each sand particle: 0.3-1.6 mm
Filter should never run dry unless it is out of use for more than one
day; in this case, the filter must be drained
Convenient for use in small service centers

Operated through three means: gravity, pumping, and siphonic action

1) Gravity Operated Filters: A) can produce 1 liter/hour/filter element
B) appropriate for domestic needs
2) Filters Using Pumps: adequate to serve the needs of larger-scale
ventures
3) Filters Using Siphonic Action: derives efficacy from its simplicity
always order spare filter elements in addition to ordinary filter as filter needs
replacing after long and extensive use
Spare filter elements can also be used to filter water with a plastic bucket for the
upper container and a jerry can for the filtered water

Maintenance
When the candle becomes lined with filtered-out particles, a nylon
brush is used to remove the amassed slime
Each cleaning also removes some of the ceramic candle, resulting in
candles eventual loss in diameter
candle needs to be replaced

Indication of this condition: if circular gauge, included in each kit, can

be slipped over candle, the candle needs to be replaced. Otherwise, it
does not

Design: Explanation
Constitutes a cement container filled with layers of sand and gravel
Plastic pipe exits bottom of filter and returns up the outside; forms a
sort of trap, reminiscent of trap under household sinks
Untreated water poured into container through a diffuser plate
(controls rate of flow)
Water passes through a biologically active region 2 inches below water
surface (equivalent of Schmutzdecke) and the strata of gravel and
sand
Clean water exits container through pipe; travels to clean water
receptacle