Evaporation

Slides prepared by Daene C. McKinney

Reading: Applied Hydrology Sections 4.1
and 4.2
Quotation for today (from Socrates)
"There is only one good, that is
knowledge; there is only one evil, that is
ignorance."
Contributed by Matt Harold.

Evaporation
Terminology
Evaporation process by which liquid
water passes directly to the vapor phase
Transpiration - process by which liquid
water passes from liquid to vapor through
plant metabolism
Sublimation - process by which water
passes directly from the solid phase to the
vapor phase

Factors Influencing Evaporation

Energy supply for vaporization
(latent heat)
Solar radiation

Transport of vapor away from

evaporative surface
Wind velocity over surface
Specific humidity gradient above
surface

Vegetated surfaces
Supply of moisture to the surface
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Potential Evapotranspiration
(PET) moisture supply is not
limited

Rn

Net radiation

Air Flow

E Evaporation

Evaporation from a Water

Surface
Simplest form of evaporation
From free liquid of permanently saturated
surface

Evaporation from a Pan

Sensible
Net radiation Vapor flow rate
heat to air

Rn

Hs

m v w AE

National Weather Service Class A type

Installed on a wooden platform in a
grassy location
Filled with water to within 2.5 inches of
the top
Evaporation rate is measured by
manual readings or with an analog
output evaporation gauge

CS

dh
dt

w
Area, A

Heat conducted
to ground

Methods of Estimating Evaporation

Energy Balance Method
Aerodynamic method
Combined method

Energy Method
CV contains liquid and vapor phase water
Continuity - Liquid phase
Hs

Rn

d
m v w d wV dA
dt CV
CS

m
v

a
dh
E
dt

dh dh
w A
E
dt dt
m v w AE

0
No flow of liquid
water through CS

Energy Method
Continuity - Vapor phase
m v
Hs

Rn

d
qv a d qv aV dA
dt CV
CS

m
v

m v qv aV dA
a
E

dh
dt

CS

w AE
h

Steady flow of air

over water

w AE qv aV dA
CS

qv aV dA
w A CS

Energy Method
Energy Eq.
0
Hs

Rn

dh
dt

CS

0;

m
v

V 0, h const.

dH d
eu w d
dt dt CV

a
E

dH dW d

(eu V 2 / 2 gz ) d
dt
dt
dt CV

2
(eu V / 2 gz ) V dA

Rn H s G

dH
Rn H s G
dt
G

Hs

Rn

Energy Method
Energy Eq. for Water in CV

m
v

a
E

dH
Rn H s G
dt

dh
dt

Assume:
1. Constant temp of water in CV
2. Change of heat is change in internal energy of water
evaporated
dH
lv m v
dt

w AE
Recall m
:
Neglecting sensible and
1
ground heat R
fluxes
Rn H s G
E
lv w A
Er n
lv w

lv m v Rn H s G

Wind as a Factor in Evaporation

Wind has a major effect on evaporation, E
Wind removes vapor-laden air by convection
This Keeps boundary layer thin
Maintains a high rate of water transfer from
liquid to vapor phase
Wind is also turbulent
Convective diffusion is several orders of magnitude
larger than molecular diffusion

Aerodynamic Method
Include transport of vapor
away from water surface
as function of:
Humidity gradient above
surface
Wind speed across surface

Rn

Net radiation

Air Flow

E Evaporation

Upward vapor flux

qv1 qv2
dqv
m a K w
a K w
dz
z2 z1

Upward momentum flux

du
u2 u1
a K m
a Km
dz
z 2 z1

K w qv1 qv2

K m u 2 u1

Aerodynamic Method
m

K w qv1 qv2

K m u 2 u1

Rn

Air Flow

Log-velocity profile

Momentum flux
k u 2 u1
a

ln Z 2 Z1

E Evaporation

u 1 Z

ln
u * k Zo

Net radiation

K w k 2 a qv1 qv2 u 2 u1
K m ln Z 2 Z1 2

Thornthwaite-Holzman Equation

Aerodynamic Method
m

Rn

K w k 2 a qv1 qv2 u 2 u1
K m ln Z 2 Z1 2

Air Flow

qv and u

Often only available at 1

elevation
Simplifying
m

Net radiation

0.622k 2 a eas ea u 2
P ln Z 2 Z o 2

m w AE

ea vapor pressure @ Z 2

E Evaporation

E a B eas ea
B

0.622k 2 a u 2

P w ln Z 2 Z o 2

Combined Method
Evaporation is calculated by
Aerodynamic method
Energy supply is not limiting

Rn
E Er
lv w

Energy method
Vapor transport is not limiting

E Ea B eas ea

Normally, both are limiting, so use a combination

method
E

Er
Ea

C p Kh p
des
4098es

2
0.622lv K w
dT ( 237.3 T )

Priestly & Taylor

E 1.3

Er

Example
Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

Elev = 2 m,
Press = 101.3 kPa,
Wind speed = 3 m/s,
Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,
Air Temp = 25 degC,
Rel. Humidity = 40%,

lv 2.501x10 6 2370T
(2500 2.36 * 25) x103 2441 kJ/kg

Rn
200
Er

7.10 mm/day
lv w 2441x103 * 997

Example (Cont.)
Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

Elev = 2 m,
Press = 101.3 kPa,
Wind speed = 3 m/s,
Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,
Air Temp = 25 degC,
Rel. Humidity = 40%,

0.622k 2 a u 2

P w ln Z 2 Z o 2

eas 3167 Pa
ea Rh * eas 0.4 * 3167 1267 Pa

0.622 * 0.4 2 *1.19 * 3

101.3 * 997 ln 2 3 x10 4

4.54 x10 11 m/Pa s

Ea 4.54 x10 11 3167 1267 * (1000 mm / 1 m) * (86400 s / 1 day)

7.45 mm/day

Example (Cont.)
Use Combo Method to find Evaporation

C p Kh p

1005 *101.3 x10 3

Elev = 2 m,

0.622lv K w 0.622 * 2441x103

Press = 101.3 kPa,
Wind speed = 3 m/s,
4098 * 3167
Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,
188.7 Pa/degC
2
(237.3 25)
Air Temp = 25 degC,
Rel. Humidity = 40%,

0.738

67.1 Pa/degC

0.262

Er
E a 0.738 * 7.10 0.262 * 7.45 7.2 mm/day

Example
Use Priestly-Taylor Method to find Evaporation rate for a water body

Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,

Air Temp = 25 degC,

E r 7.10 mm/day

E 1.3

Er

0.738

E 1.3 * 0.738 * 7.10 6.80 mm/day

Priestly & Taylor

Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration
Combination of evaporation from soil surface and
transpiration from vegetation
Governing factors
Energy supply and vapor transport
Supply of moisture at evaporative surfaces

Reference crop
8-15 cm of healthy growing green grass with abundant water

Combo Method works well if B is calibrated to local

conditions

Potential Evapotranspiration
Multiply reference crop ET by a Crop Coefficient and a
Soil Coefficient
ET k s k c ETr
ET Actual ET
ETr Reference Crop ET
k c Crop Coefficient;
0.2 k c 1.3
k s Soil Coefficient;
0 ks 1

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04707.html

Resources on the web

Evaporation maps from NWS climate
prediction center
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/soilmst/e.shtml

Climate maps from NCDC

http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl

Evapotranspiration variability in the US

http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/changes/natural/et/