N.

Gregory Mankiw

Principles of

Economics
Sixth Edition

2
Thinking Like an
Economist
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In this chapter,
look for the answers to these questions:

Apakah dua peran ekonom? Apa bedanya?

Apa yg dimaksud dengan model? Bagaimana
ekonom menggunakannya?

Apa saja elemen dari the Circular-Flow Diagram?

Ilustrasinya?

Bagaimana hubungan antara the Production

Possibilities Frontier dengan opportunity cost?

Apa perbedaan antara microeconomics dengan

macroeconomics? Antara positive dg normative?
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The Economist as Scientist

Ekonom memainkan dua peran:
1. Scientists: menjelaskan situasi dunia/the
world
2. Policy advisors: memperbaiki perekonomian
Pada peran pertama, ekonom memanfaatkan
the scientific method, yg netral terhadap perkembagan dan menguji (testing) teori tentang
bagaimana kejadiannya (the world works).

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Assumptions & Models

Asumsi dapat menyederhanakan kejadian yg
rumit, sehingga lebih mudah difahami.
Contoh: untuk mempelajari perdagangan
internasional, diasumsikan hanya ada dua
negara dengan dua barang. Memang tidak
realistis, tetapi mudah dipelajari dan dapat
mencerminkan inti permasalahan yang dihadapi.
Model: gambaran sangat sederhana bagi realitas yg lebih kompleks. Ekonom menggunakan
model2 utk mempelajari berbagai isu ekonomi.
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Some Familiar Models

A road map

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Some Familiar Models

A model of human
anatomy from high
school biology class

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Some Familiar Models

A model airplane

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Some Familiar Models

The model teeth at the
dentists office

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Dont forget
to floss!

Our First Model:

The Circular-Flow Diagram

The Circular-Flow Diagram: model visual ttg
ekonomi, yg menunjukkan perputaran uang
melalui pasar di antara para pelaku ekonomi,
perusahaan dan rumah tangga.
Dua jenis actors:
Rumah tangga
Perusahaan
Dua pasar:
Pasar barang & jasa
Pasar faktor produksi
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Factors of Production
Factors of production: sumber daya ekonomi
yg digunakan untuk memproduksi barang &
jasa, yaitu:
labor
land
capital (gedung dan mesin2 yg digunakan
dalam proses produksi)

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10

FIGURE 1:

The Circular-Flow Diagram

Households:
Own the factors of production,
sell/rent them to firms for income
Buy and consume goods & services

Firms

Households

Firms:
Buy/hire factors of production,
use them to produce goods
and services
Sell goods & services

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11

FIGURE 1:

The Circular-Flow Diagram

Revenue
G&S
sold

Markets for
Goods &
Services

Firms
Factors of
production
Wages, rent,
profit

Spending
G&S
bought

Households

Markets for
Factors of
Production

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Labor, land,
capital
Income
12

Our Second Model:

The Production Possibilities Frontier

The Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF):
grafik yg menunjukkan kombinasi dua barang yg
mungkin diproduksi di suatu negara (perekonomian) dengan memanfaatkan sumberdaya dan
teknologi yg tersedia
Contoh:
Dua barang: komputer dan gandum
Sumberdaya: tenaga kerja (diukur dlm jam)
Perekonomian memiliki 50,000 labor hours per
month yg tersedia untuk berproduksi.
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13

PPF Example
Memproduksi satu komputer perlu 100 hours labor.
Memproduksi 1 ton gandum perlu 10 hours labor.
Employment of
labor hours

Production

Computers

Wheat

Computers

Wheat

50,000

500

40,000

10,000

400

1,000

25,000

25,000

250

2,500

10,000

40,000

100

4,000

50,000

5,000

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PPF Example
Production

Point
on
Comgraph puters Wheat
A

500

400

1,000

250

2,500

100

4,000

5,000

E
D

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C
B
A

15

ACTIVE LEARNING

Points off the PPF

A. Di gambar, cari titik yg mencerminkan produksi

100 komputer& 3000 ton gandum, titik F. Mungkinkah perekonomian ybs memproduksi
kombinasi dimaksud? Jelaskan alasannya.
B. Selanjutnya, cari titik yg mencerminkan
kombinasi produksi 300 komputer & 3500 ton
gandum, titik G. mungkinkah perekonomian ybs
memproduksi kombinasi dimaksud?

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ACTIVE LEARNING

Answers

Titik F:
100 komputer,
3000 ton gandum

Titik F perlu
40,000 jam buruh
Dapat diproduksi,
tetapi tak efisien :
kombinasinya
dapat disesuaikan.

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ACTIVE LEARNING

Answers

Titik G:
300 komputer,
3500 ton gandum

Titik G perlu
65,000 jam buruh

Tak mungkin,
karena perekonomian hanya punya 50,000 jam
buruh.
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18

The PPF: What We Know So Far

Titik2 pada PPF (misalnya A E)
mungkin
efisien: semua sumberdaya telah dimanfaatkan
sepenuhnya
Titik titik di bawah PPF (misalnya F)
mungkin
tak efisien: beberapa sumberdaya tak termanfaatkan (misalnya, ada pengangguran dan mesin
juga menganggur)
Titik-titik di atas PPF (misalnya G)
Tak mungkin diproduksi
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19

The PPF and Opportunity Cost

Ingat: The opportunity cost dari item yg perlu
dikorbankan untuk memperoleh barang yg diinginkan.
Bergerak sepanjang PPF, berarti juga mengge-ser
sumberdaya (misal buruh) dari untuk produksi barang
yg satu ke barang yg lain.
Masyarakat menghadapi tradeoff: mendapatkan
barang tertentu lebih banyak, berarti mengorbankan
barang yang lain.
Slope PPF menunjukkan opportunity cost barang
tertentu diukur dari barang yg lain.

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20

The PPF and Opportunity Cost

slope =

1000
= 10
100

Slope suatu titik =

rise over the run,
the amount the line
rises when you
move to the right by
one unit.
Jadi, opportunity
cost satu
komputer adalah
10 ton gandum.

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21

ACTIVE LEARNING

PPF and Opportunity Cost

In which country is the opportunity cost of cloth lower?

FRANCE

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ENGLAND

22

ACTIVE LEARNING

Answers

England, because its PPF is not as steep as Frances.

FRANCE

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ENGLAND

23

Economic Growth and the PPF

Penambahan sumberdaya atau peningkatan tehnologi,
negara dapat memproduksi lebih banyak komputer dan
atau gandum,
dengan berbagai
alternatif kombinasi.

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Economic
growth shifts
the PPF
outward.

24

The Shape of the PPF

PPF dapat berupa garis lurus atau lengkung/ bowshaped
Tergantung pada opportunity cost yg terjadi saat
pergeseran sumberdaya dari industri satu ke yg
lain.
Kalau opp. cost tak berubah, maka PPF berupa
garis lurus (pada contoh yl, opp. cost komputer
selalu10 ton gandum)
Kalau opp. cost barang tertentu naik ketika
diproduksi lebih banyak, PPFnya akan lengkung/
bow-shaped.
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25

Kalau terjadi
pergesaran
produksi dari bir ke
sepeda gunung:

Beer

Why the PPF Might Be BowShaped

PPF menjadi
semakin tajam

opp. cost sepeda

gunung naik
Mountain
Bikes
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Pada titik A, sebagian besar buruh

memproduksi bir,
walaupun lebih baik
memproduksi
sepeda gunung.

Beer

Why the PPF Might Be BowShaped

A

Jadi, tak harus

mengorbankan
produksi bir banyak
untuk mendapatkan
sepeda lebih banyak.
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At A, opp. cost of
mtn bikes is low.

Mountain
Bikes
27

Pada titik B, seba-gian

besar buruh memproduksi sepeda. Buruh
yg memproduksi bir
adl yg terbaik utk itu.
Memproduksi lebih
banyak sepeda perlu
menggeser buruh
penghasil bir terbaik
tsb dari pabrik bir, yg
akan memerosotkan
produksi bir.

Beer

Why the PPF Might Be BowShaped

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At B, opp. cost
of mtn bikes
is high.
B

Mountain
Bikes
28

Why the PPF Might Be BowShaped

Akibatnya, PPF akan melengkung kalau buruh
yg berbeda memiliki kompetensi berbeda, juga
terdapat perbedaan opportunity costs untuk
memproduksi barang tertentu diukur dengann
barang lain.
PPF juga akan melengkung kalau ada sumber
daya lain atau campuran sumber daya yg
disertai opportunity cost yg bervariasi/beragam.
(Misal: tanah yg berbeda baik untuk tanaman yg
berbeda pula).
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29

The PPF: A Summary

PPF menunjukkan semua kombinasi dua barang
yg mungkin diprodksi di suatu negara, dengan
sumberdaya dan teknologi yg tersedia.
PPF mencerminkan konsep tradeoff dan opportunity cost, efisiensi dan inefisiensi, pengangguran, dan pertumbuhan ekonomi.
A bow-shaped PPF menggambarkan konsep
increasing opportunity cost.

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30

Microeconomics and Macroeconomics

Microeconomics: studi tenteng bagaimana rumah tangga & perusahaan mengambil keputusan dan bagaimana mereka berinteraksi di pasar.
Macroeconomics: studi ekonomi dlm arti luas,
a.l inflasi, pengangguran, dan pertumbuhan
ekonomi.
Kedua cabang ilmu ekonomi ini saling terkait
erat, walaupun memang dapat dibedakan.

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31

The Economist as Policy Advisor

Sebagai ilmuwan, ekonom membuat positive
statements, yg bertujuan untuk menjelaskan situasi.
Sebagai penasehat ekonomi, ekonom membuat
normative statements, yg bertujuan untuk merumuskan mengenai apa yg harus dilakukan/yg diinginkan.
Positive statements dapat didiskusikan, diterima atau
ditolak, sedangkan normative statements, tidak bisa.
Pemerintah mempekerjakan banyak ekonom sebagai
analis/penasehat ekonomi, sehingga pemerintah/
presiden lazimnya memiliki staf/penasihat ekonomi
(Council of Economic Advisors).
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32

ACTIVE LEARNING

Identifying positive vs. normative

Mana di antara pernyataan ini yg termasuk positive

dan mana yg normative? Apa bedanya?
a. Harga2 naik kalau Pemerintah meningkatkan

uang beredar.
b. Pemerintah harus mencetak uang lebih sedikit.
c. Pemotongan pajak diperlukan untuk

menstimulasi perekonomian.
d. Kenaikan harga burritos akan menyebabkan

kenaikan permintaan terhadap music

downloads.
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33

ACTIVE LEARNING

Answers
a. Harga2 naik kalau pemerintah meningkatkan

uang beredar.
Positive menjelaskan hubungan sebab-akibat,
dapat memanfaatkan data untuk menyetujui atau
menolak.
b. Pemerintah harus mengurangi pencetakan uang.

Normative merupakan value judgment, tak

dapat dikonfirmasi atau pun ditolak.

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34

ACTIVE LEARNING

Answers
c. Pemotongan pajak diperlukan untuk menstimulasi

perekonomian.
Normative value judgment.
d. Kenaikan harga burritos akan menyebabkan

kenaikan permintaan konsumen terhadap music

downloads.
Positive menjelaskan hubungan sebab akibat.
Perlu dicatat, bahwa pernyataan ini tidak harus
benar..
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35

Why Economists Disagree

Economists often give conflicting policy advice.
They sometimes disagree about the validity of
alternative positive theories about the world.
They may have different values and, therefore,
different normative views about what policy
should try to accomplish.
Yet, there are many propositions about which
most economists agree.

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36

Propositions about Which Most

Economists Agree (and % who agree)

A ceiling on rents reduces the quantity and quality

of housing available. (93%)
Tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general
economic welfare. (93%)
The United States should not restrict employers
from outsourcing work to foreign countries. (90%)
The United States should eliminate agriculture
subsidies. (85%)
continued
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37

Propositions about Which Most

Economists Agree (and % agreeing)
The gap between Social Security funds and
expenditures will become unsustainably large
within the next fifty years if current policies remain
unchanged. (85%)
A large federal budget deficit has an adverse effect on
the economy. (83%)
A minimum wage increases unemployment among
young and unskilled workers. (79%)
Effluent taxes and marketable pollution permits
represent a better approach to pollution control
than imposition of pollution ceilings. (78%)
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38

FYI: Who Studies Economics?

Ronald Reagan, President of the United States
Barbara Boxer, U.S. Senator
Sandra Day-OConnor, Former Supreme Court Justice
Anthony Zinni, Former General, U.S. Marine Corps
Kofi Annan, Former Secretary General, United Nations
Meg Witman, Chief Executive Officer, eBay
Steve Ballmer, Chief Executive Officer, Microsoft
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Former Gov. of California, Actor
Ben Stein, Political Speechwriter, Actor, Game Show Host
Mick Jagger, Singer for the Rolling Stones
John Elway, NFL Quarterback
Tiger Woods, Golfer
Diane von Furstenburg, Fashion Designer
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39

SUMMARY

As scientists, economists try to explain the world

using models with appropriate assumptions.

Two simple models are the Circular-Flow Diagram

and the Production Possibilities Frontier.

Microeconomics studies the behavior of

consumers and firms, and their interactions in
markets. Macroeconomics studies the economy
as a whole.

As policy advisers, economists offer advice on how

to improve the world.
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40