WELD QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

FLASH-BUTT WELDING OF PULL ROD

S. L.
PANDIT

INTRODUCTION
Welding : a common process of fabrication
Maximum fabrication work : done by welding
Selection of a suitable process for fabrication
at low cost is important
Commonly welded base metals: Ferrous-[WI, CI, C-steel (low, med, high), alloy steel,
SS]
Non-ferrous-(Al, Cu ,Mg, Ni, Zn & their alloys)
Plastic, ceramics, composites, etc can be welded
but not by the same process

Weldment should have good fatigue properties

in addition to strength & toughness.

DEFINITION OF WELDING
Definition:
Process of joining two similar or
dissimilar metals by heat or by
pressure/without pressure or by both
with or without a filler metal to
achieve a defect less joint having the
physical properties similar to that of
parent metal.

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WELDING & ALLIED PROCESSES

Arc welding:
SMAW or MMAW
FCAW
TIG welding or GTAW
MIG welding or GMAW
MAG welding or CO2 welding
SAW
Plasma arc welding
ESW
EGW
Gas welding:
Oxy-acetylene welding
Oxy hydrogen welding
Air acetylene welding

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Resistance welding:
Spot welding
Seam welding
Resistance butt welding
Flash butt welding
Solid state welding
Diffusion welding
Forge welding
Friction welding
Ultrasonic welding
Thermo chemical welding
Thermit welding
Atomic hydrogen welding
Radiant energy welding
Plasma welding
Laser beam welding
Electron beam welding
Allied process
Soldering
Brazing
Adhesive welding

WELDING PROCESSES USED IN

RAILWAYS
(a) SMAW
(b) MMAW
(c) SAW
(d) GMAW/MIG/MAG
(e) TIG/GTAW
(f) Thermit
(g) Flash Butt

WELDING PRACTICES AT JMP(W)

For manufacturing:
SMAW
CO2/MAG
SAW
For maintenance:
SMAW
CO2/MAG

WELDING PROCESSES USED IN RCF: SS COACH

MANUFACTURING

MMAW: The most common versatile &

inexpensive. Over 90% of total
welding
in India
MIG/MAG
Gas welding
TIG: The best welding process in terms of the
quality of weld produced
Spot welding
LASER welding: Legit Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
RCF Kapurthala

WHY QUALITY ?
Increase Productivity
Higher Production rate
Self and Customer satisfaction

SELECTION OF PROPER
WELDING PROCESSES
Maximum quality is assured by:

Maintaining the cleanliness of the

operation
All equipments and materials used must
be free from oil, moisture, dirt and other
impurities.
Rust on steels can be removed first by
grit blasting the surface and then using
a wire brush to remove any embedded
grit.

WELDERS QUALIFICATION
Training of welders in welding lab
from the starting of joining to their
last retirement .
Training of welding supervisors and
engineers through inside and out
side training houses.
No untrained welders are allowed to
weld in the production.

WELDING TECHNIQUE & PRECAUTIONS

Welding shall be carried out preferably in
down hand position.
Slag shall be cleaned thoroughly in between
runs
Welding operation once started, shall be
continued till completion
Only a qualified welder shall be engaged in
important repairs
The weld area shall be stress relieved by
heating to about 600-650oC with the help of
Oxy acetylene torch followed by slow cooling

WELDING
DEFECTS
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12

WELDING DEFECTS & ITS

EVALUATION

Performance of welded component in service

depends on:
the presence or absence of defects in weld joints
Defects impair the mechanical properties of weld
joints
Definition of welding defects:Defects introduced during welding beyond the
acceptance limit that can cause a weld to fail.
Radiographic stds : for evaluation of weld defects: IIW standards
ASTM standards

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13

IIW STANDARDS

Five IIW standards:

Black
Blue
Green
Brown
Red

Blue:
Very slight variation from homogeneity
in the form of one or more of the
following defects:-:

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Cavity
Shrinkage cavity
Slag inclusion
Undercut

14

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING DEFECTS

One of the IIW documents classifies all

welding defects into six groups according to
their appearance. Crack- includes all types of cracks such as
crater cracks, hot cracks, cold cracks, etc
Cavity- includes blow holes, porosities,
shrinkage, pipes, etc
Incomplete fusion & penetration- includes
lack of fusion, lack of penetration, etc
Solid inclusion- includes slag, metal oxides,
tungsten, wagon track, etc
Imperfect shape -under cut, under fill, over
lap, excessive penetration, improper bead
shape, etc
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Miscellaneous defects includes arc strike, 15

CRACKS
A hair line separation in
the weld
metal/parent metal /HAZ at
the
root or in the middle or on
the
surface or subsurface
Most dreaded of all the weld
discontinuities
Occurs in the weldment
when localized stresses
exceed the UTS of base
metal
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Long crack in HAZ

parallel to weld bead

Long crack in weld

metal running through
centre of the weld

16

CRACKS
Cause:-

High residual stresses

Electrode with high hydrogen
content
Remedy: Pre- heating
Use low H2 electrode
Avoid rapid cooling
Classification:Cracks may be grouped mainly
into two categories Hot crack
Cold crack

transvethe rse weld

crack running across
weld bead

transverse base metal crack

generally in high strength
steel
17

HOT CRACKS

Crack in the weld that

occurs just after the welds
are completed and
sometimes while the welds
are being made.

Intercrystalline crack

Develops at high
temperatures
Propagates along the grain
boundary of the material
Occurs in the weld metal and
sometimes in HAZ.
Types of Hot cracks:

Solidification crack (weld

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metal)

Transcrystalline crack

18

Cause:

HOT CRACKS

High residual stresses in weld metal

Low weld ductility
Too high welding current
High thickness of work piece (thicker the workpiece,
faster the cooling rate)

Prevention:
Using filler metal with proper composition & low
tensile strength
Pre- heat:
reduces rate of cooling
not essential for Aus.SS (martensite does not
occur).

Repair:
Remove by grinding or gouging & excavation to be
filled with sound weld metal

COLD CRACK
Occurs after the metal has
completely solidified
Can occur several days
after welds are made
Occurs in C-steel, low &
high alloy steel
propagates both between
grains and through
grains.
often associated with
non-metallic inclusion
(elongated MnS).
occurs in both weld metal
and HAZ but generally in
HAZ
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movement of H2
during arc welding

COLD CRACK

Cause-

Hydrogen pick up during welding

High stresses (can be induced by the heat input)
Phase changes (e.g. formation of martensite) during cooling
High welding speed

Prevention:

Controlling welding parameters: proper pre-heating:

reduces diffusion of H2
ensures no moisture
Post-welding treatment:
stress relief.

Clean joint from rust

Use proper welding processes and consumables:
Low strength filler metals.
Use low hydrogen type baked electrode

Repair:

Remove and re-weld.

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21

CRATER CRACK
Cracks formed with a depression either in the
weld or at the end of a weld

Occurs when the arc was broken or the flame was

removed or electrode was changed
They are hot cracks
Usually star shaped, but may have other shapes
Cause: The center of weld pool becomes solid before the outside,
pulling the center apart during cooling.
High current
Prevention: Can be minimised by filling craters to a slightly convex
shape prior to breaking the welding arc.
may be avoided through improved welding skill
Repair:
remove and reweld using appropriate procedure
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22

POROSITIES/BLOW HOLES
Porosity is a group of small
voids, where as blow holes are
comparatively bigger hole or
cavity caused by entrapment of
gases (H2, CO, CO2,N2 & O2)
within the solidified weld.
Gas porosity or blow
holes
Porosity can occur on or just
below the surface of a weld.
Porosity in the weld and HAZ
may lead
to cracking.
Cluster
porosity

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23

BLOW HOLES / POROSITIES

Cause
Work piece or electrode contains/ contaminated with: High sulphur
Excessive moisture, rust or scale, oil, grease, etc
Atmospheric gases [N2, excessive O2 (Al-welding) ]
Anodising coating on Al
Long arc
Fast solidification rate

Prevention:

Preheat
Maintain proper arc length
Use low hydrogen electrode
Use recommended procedure for baking & storing
electrodes
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Clean joint surfaces & adjacent surfaces

24

OVER LAPS
Occurs when molten metal
from the electrode flows
over the parent metal
surface & remains without
getting properly fused
Tends to produce
mechanical notch
Starts a crack at the sharp
point where the weld metal
and base metal come
together at the over-lapped
surface

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Over laps

25

CONTD-----Cause: Current too low

Too large deposition in a single run
Longer arc
Slow arc travel speed.

Prevention:
Proper welding technique
Use proper size of electrode

Repair:
Overlap must be removed to blend
smoothly into the base metal.
26

UNDER CUT
A groove formed in the parent metal
adjacent to the toe of a weld & left
unfilled by the weld metal.
Generally located at the junction of
weld metal & base metal in the toe or
root of the weld
Acts as stress raiser in fatigue loading
Reduces the cross-sectional thickness
of the base metal
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27

CONTD--

Cause:
Excessive welding current
Too large electrode dia
Incorrect electrode angle
Longer arc length

Prevention:

Use prescribed welding current for

electrode size.
Adjust electrode angle to fill undercut area.
Correct travel speed, arc length, etc.

Repair:

Gouge & weld with low hydrogen electrode

LACK OF PENETRATION
Improper penetration of weld metal through the
thickness of joint or weld metal not extending to
the required depth into the joint root

Cause

Root gap too small

high welding speed
Low heat input
Too large electrode dia

Prevention:

Proper joint preparation

Proper heat input & welding speed
Use suitable size of electrode

Repair:

Remove and reweld.

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29

LACK OF FUSION

Lack of complete melting/fusion of some

portion of the weld metal in a joint
May be at the root, sides or between two runs.
Reduces the strength of welds & makes welded
structures unreliable
Cause:Low welding current
Excess welding speed
Unfavourable heat input
Prevention:Maintain proper current & welding speed
Proper cleaning of each bead
Repair:Chipping back & re-welding

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30

LACK OF FUSION

lack of fusion between

passes

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31

EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
Weld metal lying outside the plane
joining the toes

Makes notches that create stress concentration.

Cause:

Too wide a root gap

Too high welding current
Slow travel speeds
Large size electrodes

Prevention:
Correct the root opening and root face
Reduce the wire-feed speed

Repair:
Remove and re-weld
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32

SPATTER
Small globular metal drops / particles
thrown out during welding & stick to the
base metal surfaces along its length.
Metal lost
Do not form a part of the weld.
Excessive spatters unacceptable.

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33

SPATTER

Cause
High welding current for type & size electrode used
Improper shielding gas
Electrodes coated with improper flux ingredients
Damp electrodes
Excessive long arc
High current
Prevention:
Correct welding current for type & size electrode used.
Correct proper arc length & use correct arc voltage
Spatter cure SC-07(Non-toxic, non- pollutant, water
based inorganic anti spatter flux)
Can easily be removed either by hair brush or by
washing.
Repair:
Remove by grinding or sanding.
34

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INCLUSION
Entrapment of foreign solid material
(slag, flux, W, oxides) within weld metal,
between weld passes or between the
weld and base metal.
Inclusions can be continuous or
intermittent.
Impairs the ductility of welds
Non- metallic inclusion: Most dangerous
May be sulphide, oxide, silicate or
aluminate type
Acts as stress raiser
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Slag inclusions are elongated or globular 35

INCLUSION
Possible causes for slag
inclusion:
Inadequate cleaning of weld metal
between passes
Rapid rate of welding
Too large electrode
improper current
Long arcs

Slag inclusion

Prevention: Maintain proper current & heat input

Proper cleaning of weld

Sand inclusions

Repair:

36

Chip back & re-weld

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Oxide inclusions

Slag inclusion

TUNGSTEN INCLUSION
Entrapped droplets of tungsten
in welds in TIG welding.
extremely brittle & can fracture
easily under stress.

Cause:
Dipping of tungsten electrode
into molten weld pool
Use of heavy current
Over heating & melting of Welectrode
Use of oxygen contaminated
shielding gas
Prevention:
Eliminate the above causes
Repair: Grind out and re-weld

TIG WELDING37

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WAGON TRACK
Linear slag
inclusions along
the axis of weld
Cause:
Improper welding
technique

Prevention:
Remove slag from
previous passes.
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38

EXAMPLE OF ARC STRIKE

Localised HAZ
When a welder accidently strikes the
electrode or the electrode holder against
the work, usually adjacent to the weld,
causing an unwanted arc. Such spots are
referred as arc strike.
Must be avoided
If the arc is struck outside of the weld
groove then it must be welded over to
prevent the cracking.
If this is not an option then the arc spot
can be post heated
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EXAMPLE OF ARC STRIKE

SHRINKAGE CAVITY OR
CONTRACTION CAVITY
A cavity formed
by shrinkage of
weld metal
during its
solidification.
Seldom occurs

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Shrinkage

40

SAFETY IN
WELDING

WHY SAFETY ?
Intense heat is generated during
welding & cutting of metals
The welding rays:
Welding arc is a source of infra red & UV
light

During welding: flying sparks, metal

globules (spatter), hot metal, hot slag
particles, hot electrode stubs, fumes &
gases

42

PROTECTION OF WELDERS
Workers need to be protected from all
these hazards mentioned. They may
cause:
Burns
Injury or
Death

Falling when welding at a height from the

ground.
To protect persons from injury, a set of PPE
have been published by ISI & many other
similar International Organisations.
The risks associated with welding/cutting
can be reduced by proper use of PPE
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PPE FOR WELDING & CUTTING

Welders must wear suitable protective

equipments.
They:
protect against hazards (burns, sparks, spatters,
electric shock, radiation(UV, IR), slag, heat, hot
metals, heat, fumes, gases, etc).
may be procured from regular agencies & as per
the specification

Regular agencies:
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
OSHA: Occupational Safety & Health
Administration
NFPA : National Fire Protection Association
AWS : American Welding Society
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SPEC FOR PPE FOR WELDING &

CUTTING
1. Eye protection (ANSI Z 49.1 & OSHA 29 CFR
1910.252)

2. Head protection (ANSI Z 49.1&OSHA 29

CFR1910.252)
3. Ear protection (ANSI Z 49.1 & OSHA 29 CFR
1910.252)
4. Foot protection (ASTM F 2412 & 2413)
5. Hand protection ( ANSI Z 49.1)
6. Body protection (ANSI Z 49.1)
45
7. Respiratory Protection Equipment ( ANSI Z 49.1)
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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT (PPE)

HAND GLOVES

EAR
PLUG

EAR PLUG WITH CAP

SAFETY HELMETS WELDING GOGGLES WELDING RESPIRATOR

PPE

SAFETY SHOES

SAFETY APRON

Foot guard with

rubber toed

WELDING
SUITS

Leg guard

SAFETY
BELTS

QUALITY
CONTROL IN
WELDS

INTRODUCTION
Physical and Mechanical properties are checked
in CMT Lab by various tests:
Non-Destructive Test
Destructive Test

NDT Methods for Surface Examination:

Visual Examination
Liquid Penetrant Test
Magnetic Particle Test

NDT Methods for Volumetric Examination:

Radiography
UST

All the surface defects must be corrected before

applying expensive NDT techniques.

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

Selection of a method for inspection depends
on:
- the nature of discontinuities
- accessibility of the weld joint
- type of materials welded
- number of joints o be inspected
- detection capability of the method of
inspection
- level of weld quality required
- economic considerations
Welds made by various welding processes
may contain flaws that are characteristic of
that welding process

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

Flaws encountered in butt and fillet weld joints

can be grouped into five basic categories:
Gas porosity: scattered, linear, cluster, elongated or
wormhole
Slag inclusions: at the root, between the weld
beads or near the surface
Incomplete fusion: between the weld beads,
between the weld bead and the parent metal
Incomplete penetration: at the root of the weld
Cracks: transverse, longitudinal, under-bead,
crater, hot cracks, toe cracks, centerline cracks.

The form, location and orientation of each is

governed by several factors, including joint
configuration, welding process, base metal and
other variables associated with the joint.

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

VARIOUS TYPES OF CRACKS:

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

VISUAL EXAMINATION

Extremely effective method of maintaining

acceptable welding quality & preventing
welding problems, if carried out correctly
Performed before, during and after welding
There are many areas within the welding
operation that can be verified & evaluated
by this method
To be performed in adequate lighting
conditions
Optical aids, such as magnifying glass with
10X is often used to improve the
effectiveness

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

DPT
Basic steps: Surface preparation (The surface
must be cleaned adequately to
avoid non relevant indications &
reduce the back ground effects)
Application of penetrant
Dwelling time
Removal of excess penetrant
Application of developer.
Surface inspection
Post cleaning
* The dye penetrant, cleaner and
the developer must be of the same
brand and the manufacturer.

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

MPI/MPT
Most commonly used technique for
detection of surface & subsurface flaws
in ferromagnetic materials
A plate with grooves of varying depths
is used as a reference standard
Both dry & wet techniques & visual or
fluorescent particles are used
Dry powder technique is more sensitive
than wet method on weld joints

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

MPI/MPT
Steps of testing:
Surface preparation
Magnetising the surface
Application of magnetic
ink
Examining the surface
Final cleaning
Demagnetization

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF WELD

JOINTS

Very commonly used for acceptance of

weld joints
Sources of radiation used for industrial
radiography:
- X-ray
- Gamma ray: Co-60, Ir-192, Cs-137, Tl-170
(from BARC)

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF WELD

JOINTS
Very commonly used for acceptance of weld
joints
Sources of radiation used for industrial
radiography:
- X-ray
Cobalt- IridiumCaesium- ThuliumSource
- Gamma ray:60
Co-60, Ir-192,
Cs-137,
Tl-170
192
137
170 (from
BARC)
Half
Life
5.27
74 days 30.1
129
yrs of Gamma Ray
yrs Sources:
days
Characteristics
Thickness
501275
20-100 2.510
of steel
200
mm
mm
mm
mm

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF WELD JOINTS

For lower thickness, X-ray sources in the range

of 100 to 160 KV are preferred for sensitivity
reasons & for higher thicknesses than 100 mm
X-ray sources of higher ranges are used for
economical and radiation safety considerations
Usually penetrameter (2% of weld joint
thickness) is placed on the side of the source
adjacent to the weld to assess the quality of
sensitivity of the radiographic technique
Defect at least 2% of thickness of the material
with sufficient contrast can only be detected
Compared to other NDT methods of inspection,
radiography is expensive

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION OF
WELD JOINTS

NDT OF WELD JOINTS

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
As the thickness of the weld joints
increases, the sensitivity of the RT reduces.
Also the exposure periods increase
exponentially and become uneconomical.
For such applications UT is preferred
The weld is scanned from both sides on
one surface or from one side on both
surfaces
Care is taken that the entire volume of
weld metal, HAZ & a part of parent metal
are scanned

DESTRUCTIVE TEST IN WELDS

DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Includes: Mechanical testing:
Hardness test:
Tensile test
Bend test
Impact test, etc

Metallurgical testing:
Macroscopic
Microscopic

DESTRUCTIVE TEST IN WELDS

BEND TEST
Determines the
ductility or
strength

IMPACT STRENGTH
To evaluate the
toughness
of a material under
shock
loading.
Types of tests:
Izod Impact test (for
structural plates)
Charpy Test (For
harder/HT items)

THANK YOU

RCF Kapurthala