Investment Alternatives

Organizing Financial Assets

Basically, households have three choices with

regard to savings options:

1. Holding savings accounts and other financial
assets in the traditional intermediaries, such as
banks and insurance companies.
2.Hold securities directly, such as stocks and
bonds, purchased directly through brokers and
other intermediaries.
3.Hold securities indirectly, through mutual funds
and pension funds. In this case, households
leave the investing decisions to others by
investing indirectly rather than directly.

Indirect Investing
The buying and selling of the shares of

investment companies which, in turn,

hold portfolios of securities

Direct Investing
Investors buy and sell securities

themselves, typically through brokerage

accounts

Nonmarketable Financial
Assets

A distinguishing characteristic of these assets

is that they represent personal transactions

between the owner and the issuer.
In contrast, Marketable securities trade in
impersonal markets the buyer (seller) does
not know who the seller (buyer) is, and does
not care.
These are Safe Investments. At least some of
these assets offer the liquidity, which can be
defined as the ease with which an asset can
be quickly converted to cash.

Important Nonmarketable Financial

Assets
Savings accounts. Undoubtedly the best-known

type of Investment, savings accounts are held

at commercial banks or institutions. Savings
accounts in insured institutions offer a high
degree of safety on both the principal and the
interest earned on that principal. Liquidity
together with the safety feature probably
accounts for the popularity of savings
accounts. Most accounts permit unlimited
access to funds although some restrictions can
apply. Rates paid on these accounts are stated
as an Annual Percentage Yield (APY).

Important Nonmarketable Financial

Assets
Nonnegotiable certificates of deposit.

Commercial banks and other institutions offer

a variety of savings certificates known as
certificates of deposit (CDs). These
certificates are available for any amount and
for various maturities, with higher rates
offered as maturity increases. (Larger
deposits may also command higher rates,
holding maturity constant.) These CDs are
meant to be a buy-and-hold investment.
Although some CD issuers have now reduced
the stated penalties for early withdrawal.

Important Nonmarketable Financial

Assets
Money market deposit accounts (MMDAs). A

savings account whichsharessome of the

characteristics of amoney market fund. Like
othersavings accounts,money market
depositaccounts areinsuredby theFederal
government. Money market deposit
accountsoffermany of thesameservices
aschecking accounts althoughtransactions may
be somewhat more limited. These accounts are
usually managed bybanksorbrokerages, and can
be a convenient place tostore money that is to be
used forupcominginvestments

Money Market Securities

Money markets include short-term, highly liquid,

relatively low-risk debt instruments sold by

governments, financial institutions, and
corporations to investors with temporary excess
funds to invest.
This market is dominated by financial institutions,
particularly banks, and governments.
The size of the transactions in the money market
typically is large ($100,000 or more).
The maturities of money market instruments
range from 1 day to 1 year and are often less
than 90 days.

Important Money Market Securities

T-billsare short-term securities that

mature in one year or less from their issue

date. They are issued with three-month,
six-month and one-year maturities.Tbillsare purchased for a price that is less
than their par (face) value; when they
mature, the government pays the holder
the full par value.

Important Money Market Securities

Negotiable certificates of deposit (CDs).

Issued in exchange for a deposit of funds

by most banks. The deposit is maintained
in the bank until maturity, at which time
the holder receives the deposit plus
interest. However, these CDs are
negotiable, meaning that they can be sold
in the open market before maturity. Dealers
make a market in these un-matured CDs.
Maturities typically range from 14 days (the
minimum maturity permitted) to one year.
The minimum deposit is $100,000.

Important Money Market Securities

Commercial Paper. A short-term, unsecured

promissory note issued by large, well-known, and

financially strong corporations. Denominations
start at $100,000, with a maturity of 270 days or
less (average maturity is about 30 days).
Commercial paper is usually sold at a discount
either directly by the issuer or indirectly through
a dealer, with rates comparable to CDs. Although
a secondary market exists for commercial paper,
it is weak and most of it is held to maturity.
Commercial paper is rated by a rating service as
to quality (relative probability of default by the
issuer).

Important Nonmarketable Financial

Assets
A Repurchase agreement (repo) is a form of

short-term borrowing for dealers in government

securities. Thedealersellsthegovernment
securities to investors, usually on an overnight
basis, andbuys them back the following day.
For the party selling the security (and agreeing
to repurchase it in the future) it is a repo; for
the party on the other end of the transaction,
(buying the security and agreeing to sell in the
future) it is areverse repurchase agreement.

Important Money Market Securities

Banker s acceptance. A time draft drawn on a

bank by a customer, whereby the bank agrees

to pay a particular amount at a specified future
date. Bankers acceptances are negotiable
instruments because the holder can sell them
for less than face value (i.e., discount them) in
the money market. They are normally used in
international trade. Bankers acceptances are
traded on a discount basis, with a minimum
denomination of $100,000. Maturities typically
range from 30 to 180 days, with 90 days being
the most common.

Capital Market Securities

Capital Markets encompass fixed-income

and equity securities with maturities

greater than 1 year. Risk is generally much
higher than in the money market because
of the time to maturity and the very nature
of the securities sold in the capital markets.
Marketability is poorer in some cases.
1.Fixed Income Securities
2.Equities

Fixed Income Securities

Fixed income securities have a specified

payment schedule. Such as with a traditional

bond. The amount and date of each payment
are known in advance. All fixed income
securities have a specified payment or
repayment schedule-they must mature at
some future date.
Technically, fixed income securities include:
a) Treasury bonds
b) Municipal bonds
c) Corporate bonds
d) Asset-backed securities
e) Mortgage-related bonds &
f) Money market securities

Bonds
Adebt instrument issued for aperiodof more than

one year with the purpose of

raisingcapitalbyborrowing.
TheFederalgovernment,
states,cities,corporations, and many
othertypesofinstitutions sellbonds. Generally, a
bond is a promise torepay theprincipalalongwith
interest(coupons) on a specified date (maturity).
Some bonds do not payinterest, but all
bondsrequirea repayment of principal. When
aninvestorbuys a bond, he/she becomes a
creditor of the issuer. However, thebuyerdoes not
gain anykindofownershiprightsto the issuer,
unlike in the case ofequities.

Characteristics of Bonds
Set Maturity Dates bonds have set maturity dates that can range from

one to 30 years short-term bonds (mature in three years or less),

intermediate bonds (mature in three to ten years) and long-term bonds
(mature in ten years or more)
Interest Payments bonds typically offer some form of interest payment;

however, this depends on their structure: "Fixed Rate Bonds" provide fixed
interest payments on a regular schedule for the life of the bond; "Floating
Rate Bonds" have variable interest rates that are periodically adjusted; and,
"Zero Coupon Bonds" do not pay periodic interest at all, but offer an
advantage in that they are can be bought at a discounted price of the face
value and can be redeemed at the face value at maturity
Principal Investment Repayment bond issuers are obligated to repay

the full principal amount of a bond in a lump sum when the bond reaches
maturity
Credit Ratings You can evaluate the "default risk" (the risk that the

issuers won't be able to make interest or principal payments) of a bond by

checking the rating it has been given by a bond rating agency such
asMoody's Investors ServiceorStandard and Poor's
Callable Bonds If the bond has a "call feature", the issuer is allowed to

redeem the bond before its maturity date, repay the loan and thus, stop
paying interest on it
Minimum Investment Bonds are usually issued in $1,000 or $5,000

denominations

Treasury/Government Bonds
Government bond is a debt security loaned

by a government to assist government

spending, most often issued in the countrys
local interest.
The various types of Government bonds
issued by the Govt. of Pakistan are as follows:
Pakistan Investment Bonds
US Special Dollar Bonds
Wapda Bonds
National Saving Bonds
and Sukuk

Municipal Bonds
A municipal bond is adebt securityissued by a

state, municipality or county to finance itscapital

expenditures. Municipal bonds are exempt from
federal taxes and from most state andlocal
taxes, especially if you live in the state in which
the bond is issued.
Municipal bondsmay be used to fund
expenditures such as the construction of
highways, bridges or schools. "Munis" are bought
for their favorable tax implications, and are
popular with people in high incometax brackets.

Corporate Bonds
Corporate Bond is a debt security which is issued by company

and sold to investors to meet its financial requirements. In

Pakistan this is commonly known as Term Finance Certificate
(TFC). Corporate Bonds are normally issued for a specified
time period with an assurance to return the principal amount
of the bond money including interest to the bondholder.
When someone buys a bond, he/she is lending money to the
company that issued it. The company ensures to return the
money, on a specified maturity date. Till that time, it also
pays a stated rate of return, which usually occurs
semiannually. The interest payments collected from corporate
bonds are taxable. Unlike shares, bonds do not provide an
ownership interest in the issuing company

Corporate Bonds
The most common type of unsecured bond is the

Debenture, a bond backed only by the issuers overall

financial soundness and general worthiness of business.
Convertible Bonds:
Some bonds have a built-in conversion feature. The holders
of these bonds have the option to convert the bonds into
common stock whenever they choose. Typically, the bonds
are turned in to the corporation in exchange for a specified
number of common shares, with no cash payment required.
The term Junk Bonds refers to high-risk, high-yield bonds
that carry ratings of BB (S&P) or lower, with
correspondingly higher yields.

Asset-Backed Securities
An asset-backed security (ABS) is a financial security

backed by a loan, lease orreceivablesagainst assets

other than real estate andmortgage-backed
securities. For investors, asset-backed securities are
an alternative to investing in corporate debt.
An ABS is essentially the same thing as amortgagebacked security, except that the securities backing it
are assets such as loans, leases,credit card debt, a
company's receivables,royaltiesand so on, and not
mortgage-based securities.

Mortgage-Backed Securities
Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBSs) Securities

whose value depends upon some set of mortgages

These securities are simply shares of home loans
(mortgages) sold to investors in various security
forms. Traditionally, investors in mortgage-backed
securities expected to minimize default risk
because most mortgages were guaranteed by one
of the government agencies.
Nevertheless, these securities present investors
with uncertainty, because they can receive varying
amounts of monthly payments depending on how
quickly homeowners pay off their mortgages.

Equity Securities
Preferred Stock: An equity security with an

intermediate claim (between the bondholders and

the stockholders) on a firms assets and earnings.
It is known as a hybrid security because it
resembles both equity and fixed-income
instruments. As an equity security, preferred
stock has an in finite life and pays dividends.
Preferred stock resembles fixed-income securities
in that the dividend is fixed in amount and known
in advance, providing a stream of income very
similar to that of a bond. The difference is that the
stream continues forever, unless the issue is
called or otherwise retired (most preferred is
callable).

Preferred Stock
Preferred stockholders are paid after the

bondholders but before the common stockholders in terms of priority of payment of income
and in case the corporation is liquidated.
However, preferred stock dividends are not legally
binding, but must be voted on each period by a
corporations board of directors. If the issuer fails
to pay the dividend in any year, the unpaid
dividend will have to be paid in the future before
common stock dividends can be paid if the issue
is cumulative. (If noncumulative, dividends in
arrears do not have to be paid.)
Types of Preferred Stocks
Variable-Rate Preferred Stock
Convertible into Common Stock

Common Stock
An equity security representing the ownership

interest in a corporation. As a purchaser of 100

shares of common stock, an investor owns
100/n percent of the corporation (where n is
the number of shares of common stock
outstanding).
As owners, the holders of common stock are
entitled to elect the directors of the corporation
and vote on major issues.
Stockholders also have limited liability, meaning
that they cannot lose more than their
investment in the corporation.

Characteristics of Common
Stocks
The par value (stated or face value) of common

stock
The book value of a corporation is the accounting
value of the equity as shown on the books (i.e.,
balance sheet).
The market value (price) of the stock is of concern
to investors. The aggregate market value for a
corporation, calculated by multiplying the market
price per share of the stock by the number of
shares outstanding, represents the total value of
the firm as determined in the marketplace.
Market value of a Firm = m.k.t price per share no.
of shares outstanding

Cash Dividends
The only cash payments regularly made by

corporations directly to their stockholders are

dividends. They are decided on and declared by
the board of directors and can range from zero to
virtually any amount the corporation can afford to
pay.
The common stockholder has no specific promises
to receive any cash from the corporation.
Dividends are extremely important to investors.
2 dividend terms are important:
Dividend Yield: Dividend divided by current stock
price D/P
Payout Ratio: Dividends divided by earnings D/E

Stock Dividends and Stock

Splits
A stock dividend is a payment by the

corporation in shares of stock instead of

cash.
A stock split is the issuance by a corporation
of shares of common stock in proportion to
the existing shares outstanding.
P/E Ratio: The price of a stock, which is
determined in the marketplace, is divided by
its earnings, the P/E ratio shows and
interprets that how much the market as a
whole is willing to pay per dollar of earnings.

Derivative Securities
Securities that derive their value in whole or in

part by having a claim on some underlying

security.
1.
Options
a) Puts
b) Calls
2.Futures
Options and futures contracts have important
differences perhaps the biggest difference is
that a futures contract is an obligation to buy or
sell, but an options contract is only the right to
do so, as opposed to an obligation. The buyer of
an option has limited liability, but the buyer of a
futures contract does not.

Options & Futures

Options are rights to buy or sell a stated number of

shares of a security within a specified period at a

specified price.
Puts: An option to sell a specified number of shares
of stock at a stated price within a specified period.
Calls: An option to buy a specified number of
shares of stock at a stated price within a specified
period.
A futures contract is an agreement that provides
for the future exchange of a particular asset
between a buyer and a seller. The seller contracts
to deliver the asset at a specified delivery date in
exchange for a specified amount of cash from the
buyer.