IDENTITY

Definition: It is the determination of the individuality of a person based on

certain physical characteristics.
Objects:

In Criminal
In Civil cases
In Forensic, it is important in cases like decomposition,

burns, fire & explosions, mass disasters, etc.

1

THE CORPUS DELICTI: means the real facts of any

criminal offences. It is also known as the body of
offence or the essence of crime.

Identification Data
In Living & Dead
Race, Religion, Sex, Age, General development,
stature, Birthmarks, Moles, Scars, Tattoo marks,
Injuries, Occupational marks, Anthropometric
measurements, Fingerprints & other prints, Teeth,
Clothes, jewellery, etc.
In Living
Handwritings, Speech, Gait, Manners, Habits,
Memory, Education, IQ, etc.

1. RACE
1.

Complexion (skin colour)

2.

Eyes

3.

Hair

4.

Cloths

5.

Skeleton
Cephalic Index=Max. Breadth of Skull/Max.
Length of Skull x 100
Dolico-cephalic (long headed)
70 to 75
Mesati-cephalic (medium headed) - 75 to 80
Brachy-cephalic (short headed)
- 80 to 85

Skull
Orbit
Palate
N.A.
Limbs

Caucasian Mongolian
Negro
Round
Square
Narrow
Triangular
Round
Square
Triangular
Round
Rectangular
Elongated
Round
Broad
Normal
Short
Long

2. RELIGION

3. SEX Determination
Sex determination is important in cases of rape,
impotence, marriage, divorce, legitimacy, heirship,
sports, jobs etc.
Sex Chromatin (Barr Body): can be made by
examining buccal smear, saliva, hair, bone
marrow, amniotic fluid etc.
Concealed Sex: Hiding of sex by changing dress or
any other method. Mainly done by criminals. It can
be detected by Physical examination.

Intersex: It is an intermingling of characters of both

sexes in one individual.
1. Gonadal Agenesis
2. Gonadal Dysgenesis
Klinefelters Syndrome (47, XXY)
Turners Syndrome (45, XO)

3. True Hermaphroditism (Bisexuality)

Presence of an ovary and a testicle or two ovotestis.

4. Pseudo Hermaphroditism
Gonadal tissue of one sex internally, but appearance of
opposite sex.
Male PH(XY): Testicular feminisation
Female PH(XX): Adrenal Hyperplasia

10

Medullary Index of Bones: Useful to determine sex

by long bones.
M.I=diameter of medulla/Diameter of bone X 100
Sexing by skeleton in Adult
Whole Skeleton
100%
Pelvis + Skull
98 %
Pelvis
95 %
Skull
90 %
Long Bones
80 %

11

4. AGE

Determined by Teeth, Ossification of Bones,

Secondary Sexual Characteristics, Development.
TEETH (Forensic Dentistry, Odontology)
Age determined by their development & by their
secondary changes
Types
1. Temporary Teeth (20 in nos.)
2. Permanent Teeth (32 in nos.)

12

Methods to record Teeth data (Charting)

1. Universal system
2. Palmers notation
3. Federation dentaine Internationale Digit System
4. Anatomical Chart
5. Haderup system

13

Temporary Teeth: smaller, lighter, narrow, china

white in colour, more constricted at neck, smaller
roots etc.
Tooth
Central Incisor
Lateral Incisor
1st Molar
Canine
2nd Molar

Eruption
6 to 9 months
7 to 12 months
12 to 14 months
17 to 18 months
20 to 30 months

14

Permanent Teeth: larger, heavier, broad, ivory white

in colour, less constricted at neck, larger roots etc.
4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars, 6 molars in each
jaw.
Types of Permanent Teeth
1. Successional Teeth: They erupt in place of
temporary teeth.
2. Superadded Teeth: They do not have deciduous
predecessors.
3. Impacted Teeth: They never erupt in the jaw

15

Tooth
1st Molar
Central Incisor
Lateral Incisor
1st Premolar
2nd Premolar
Canine
2nd Molar
3rd Molar

Eruption
6 to 7 years
6 to 8 years
7 to 9 years
9 to 11 years
10 to 12 years
11 to 12 years
12 to 14 years
17 to 25 years

16

Universal System

Palmers Notation

Haderup System

17

Federation Dentaire Internationale

18

Anatomical Charting

19

GUSTAFSONS METHOD
Age estimation is done by this method after
21 years by examining by secondary
changes of the teeth.
1. Attrition
2. Paradentosis
3. Secondary Dentin
4. Cementum Apposition
5. Root Resorption
6. Transparency of the Root

20

Limitation: This method is not useful for first

15 years of life due to absence of all changes
& the error is about 4 to 7 years.
Grading
0 No change
1 Early change
2 Obvious change
3 Maximum change

21

22

Secondary sexual Characteristics

In males (at about 14 to 15 years)
Hairs on pubis, enlargement of penis & testes,
hairs on axilla, hairs on face, voice changes
etc.
In females (12 to 13 years)
Development of breasts, hairs on mons
veneris, development of labia, 1st
menstruation, psychological changes etc.

23

Medico-legal Importance of Age

1.

Criminal Responsibility
Any act done by a child under the age of 7
years is not an offence (IPC 82).
A child between 7 to 13 years is capable of
committing a crime, if he has sufficient
maturity (IPC 83).
A child below 12 years can not give a valid
consent to suffer any harm done for his good
faith or his benefit (IPC 89).
A person above 18 years can give a valid
consent (IPC 87).
A child above 5 years is liable for punishment
for any unlawful act (Indian Railway Act 118).
24

2. Judicial Punishment
If a Juvenile commits a crime or unlawful act, he
is sent to special home for the period until he
becomes Major with or without fine. (According
to The Juvenile Justice Act, 2000).
No Juvenile shall be sentenced to death or life
imprisonment
3. Rape
Sexual intercourse by a man with a girl under 15
years even she is his own wife, or other girl
under 16 years even with her consent is Rape.

25

4. Kidnapping

Kidnapping means taking away a person by illegal

means.
It has been described under IPC 361 to 369.
It is an offence
To kidnap a child under 10 years with the intention of
taking any movable property dishonestly (IPC 369).
To kidnap a minor (girl under 16 & boy under 18) from
lawful guardianship (IPC 361).
To kidnap a minor for begging (IPC 363).
To kidnap a woman for compelling her marriage (IPC
366).
To kidnap a girl under 18 years for prostitution (IPC 366)
To import a girl under 21 years to India from foreign
country for the purpose of sexual intercourse.
26

5. Employment
A child below 14 years can not be employed to
work in factory or mine or other risky places. A
person after 15 years is allowed for the same, if a
fitness certificate is produced.
6. Attainment of Majority
A person attains majority on completion of 18
years but when a person is under the
guardianship of court or under a guardian
appointed by the court, he attains majority on
completion of 21 years (Indian Majority Act 3).
7.Evidence
Any child can give evidence, if court is satisfied
that the child is truthful (IEA 118).
27

8. Marriage: A male under 21 years and a female

under 18 years can not contract marriage (Child
marriage Restrain Act, 1978).
9. Infanticide: The charge of infanticide can not be
supported, if the infant can be proved under the
age of 7 months of IUL.
10. Criminal Abortion: A woman who has passed
the age of child bearing age can not be charged
for criminal abortion.
11. Identification: An approximate age is
important in any chain of identity data.
12. Impotence & Sterility: A boy is sterile but not
impotent before puberty, woman is sterile before
puberty & after menopause.
28

Rule of Hasse

This is a rough method of calculating the age of

foetus.

In this method height of foetus is measured in

centimeters.

During the first five months, the square root of

the length gives the approximate age.

- After five months, the length divided by five gives

the approximate age.
29

Month
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th

Height (cm)
1
4
9
16
25
30
35
40
45
50

Weight (g)
2.5
10
30
120
400
700
1000
1500-2000
2250-3000
2500-5000
30

Stature
Stature means Built of a person (Height).
- It is usually measured in cm.
- It is less in the afternoon & evening (1.5
-2cm).
- It is more on lying position (1.5-2cm).
- It is reduced in malnutrition.
It gradually decreases after 30 years (0.6mm).
It is more after death (2 cm).
- It can be measured by bones using Karl
Pearson formula, trotter & Glessers method,
etc.
31

Approximately Determined by
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The length from Vertex to S. Pubis x 2 = the

stature.
The skeleton height + 2 to 4 cm = the stature.
The length from tip of middle finger to the tip of
opposite middle finger = the stature.
(Length of one u. limb x 2) + 30 cm + 4 cm = the
stature.
The length from sternal notch to S. Pubis x 3.3 =
the stature
The length of olecranon process to tip of middle
finger x 19/5 = the stature
The height of head x 7 = the stature
The length of vertibral column x 100/35 = the
stature
The length of foot x 100/15 = the stature
32

Anthropometry

1.
2.
3.

4.

It is also known as Bertillon system.

It is useful only after 21 years.
This system includes
Basic Data like skin colour, eyes, hairs, ears,
nose, chin etc.
Body marks like birth marks, moles, scars,
tattoo marks etc.
Measurements like height, weight, diameters of
head, arm, forearm, chest, abdomen thigh, leg
etc.
Photographs of head and face.
This system is now out dated due to
Dactylography.

33

Dactylography
History
- This system is known as Fingerprint system, HenryGalton system and Dermatoglyphics.
Prof. M. Mulpighi was the first person to study friction
ridges.
Sir William Hershel was the first person to use this
system in India in 1858.
Dr.Henry was the first person to mention
characteristics of fingerprints in 1880
Sir Francis Galton has Systematized this system in
1892. Sir Edward Henry has modified this system and
officially introduced for identification in UK.
The first fingerprint bureau was established in Kolkata.

34

Introduction
Fingerprints are the impression or patterns formed by
the papillary ridges or friction ridges of epidermis of
the fingers.
The process of taking this for identification is known
as Fingerprint system.
Fingerprints are mainly due to the basal germinal
layer of epidermis (Stratum Germinativum).
The ridges appear between 12 to 16 weeks of IUL &
remains unchanged throughout life.
The fingerprints are unique for the person, even for
identical twins & they are not inherited.
They may persist for years if undisturbed. On paper,
they may remain for more than 3 years.
35

36

Classification

1.

Loops (60-65%)
Ulnar & Radial
Whorls (30-35%)
Concentric, Spiral, double spiral & Almond
Arches (6-7%)
Plain, Tented & Exceptional
Composite (1-2%)
Central pocket, Lateral pocket, twinned loop &
accidental

2.
3.
4.

37

38

Plain Arch

Whorl

Tented Arch

Radial Loop

Ulnar Loop

Central pocket

Double Loop

Accidental
39

40

Comparison

In routine practice 10 to 12 points are compared.

This points are the characteristics of the prints, not the pattern.

This points are: Bifurcation, ending, lake formation, island

formation etc.
Bifurcation
Island
Ending
Dot/Lake

41

Bifurcation

Dbl Bifur.

Dot

Trpl Bifur.

Island

Opp. Bifur.

Lake

Hook

Ridge Crossing Opp. Bifur./End.

42

Mode of Production

During excitement, sweat is secreted through subepidermal sweat glands.

This sweat contains 99% water & 1% solids like salt,

sulphates, carbamates, lactic acid, urea, formic acids,
fatty acids, acetic acids, butyric acids, albumin etc.

These all leave print mark on the surface.

43

Types of Fingerprints

1.

Latent Print (Invisible Print): It is most common type.

2.

Visible Print: It is visible due to Blood, Ink, oil or

other medium.

3.

Plastic Print: It is the print on soap, mud, cheese,

candle, dried blood, adhesives etc.

44

Techniques of Fingerprinting
Hands are washed, cleaned and dried.
Printers Ink is applied on fingertips.
Ink should be applied properly.
Prints are taken on white unglazed paper.
It can be taken by plain or rolled method.

45

46


1.
2.

Lifting of Fingerprints
Fingerprints can be taken from any surface by using
cellophane tap or by photography, if it is visible.
In case of latent print, prints can be visualized by
oblique lighting, UV lights or dusting the surface with
reagents.
Commonly used reagents are grey power (Chalk &
Mercury) & white power (Lead carbonate & French
chalk).
Other reagents are Charcoal, Aluminium dust,
Iodine vapour, Silver nitrate, Ninhydrin, Osmium
tetroxide, X-rays, Diazafluorenone, ect.
Sprays: See-Through, UV Trap, SPR Black, Nin Plus,
Allprint, Mistral's Crystal Violet, Ferrotrace, etc.
47

Fingerprints in Decomposed Bodies

Skin from each terminal phalanx is taken by knife
from each finger up to 1 cm.
Skin is preserved in 10% formalin in separate
container & sent to Fingerprint Bureau.
If skin is shrivelled, it should be treated with 20%
acetic acid or injection of air, glycerin or liq. paraffin is
given into the bulb.
If skin is dehydrated, it should be treated with Pot.
Hydroxide in warm water.
If skin is fragile, lead carbonate & paraffin is applied
on the shin and then X-ray is taken.
If skin is mummified, injection of paraffin or formalin
can be given before removing them.
48

Mutilation of Fingerprints

They can be destroyed by burns, corrosives or

erosion, if the true skin is completely lost.

Loss of pattern can be occurred due to dermatitis,

eczema, scleroderma, leprosy, electrical injury,
radiation, paralysis, rickets, epidermal atrophy,
coeliac disease, etc.

49

Computerisation
Computerised automatic fingerprint system is known
as FINDER.
In this method, light is reflected on fingers & the data
is measured digitally & they are recorded & stored.
Comparison & Identification can be done accurately
by this method. (1 square cm area is taken for these.)
Millions of fingerprint data can be stored, delivered
and printed in fraction of seconds by this method.

50

51

Medico-legal significance
Recognition of impression at scene of crime. (by
detecting prints on weapons, objects, furniture,
clothes etc.)
Identification in cases of suicides, accidents, mass
disasters, loss of memory, comatose patients etc.
Identification in case of exchange of newborns.
To maintain identity data. (jobs, education, legal & civil
documents)
In criminal cases: Fingerprints of all ten fingers are
taken. In civil cases, only left thumb impression is
taken.
Approximate age group can be determined.
52

Poroscopy
It is a method of identification.
It is invented by Dr. Edmond Locard.
This method is further study of fingerprints.
In this method, microscopic pores are examined.
These pores are actually mouths of sub-epithelial
sweat glands.
Each milimeter of skin contain about 10 to 20 pores.
These pores are permanent throughout life and vary
in size, shape, numbers & position.
It has limited value.
It is useful only when fragments of fingerprints are
available.
53

Foot Prints

Same as fingers, toes & heels have specific unique &

permanent pattern.

It is mainly useful in cases of exchange of newborns.

Thats why routinely footprints are taken in every
hospital after the birth of baby.

It is also useful at scene of crime for the detection of

crime & criminals. In such cases shoe print is also
used.

54

Palato Prints

Lip Prints (Cheiloscopy)

Types: Vertical, Branched, Intersected, Reticular &

Irregular

Ear Prints

Nose Prints

Nail Prints

Retina Prints
55

56

Superimposition

This is a method to determine whether the skull is

that of the person, which is in available photograph.
This method was 1st used by Glaister & Brash in
1935.
photograph of front view & skull bone
The photo is modified by adjusting inter pupillary
distant
Skull with mandible
Negative of skull is prepared & matched with the
photo by super imposing each other.
Previously it is done by using camera & mount
technique. Now-a-days, this is done with the help of
computer.
57

58

59


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Comparison Points
Exact fixation of eyes
The Nasion
The Prosthion
Nasal Spine
Lower Nasal border
Supraorbital margins
Lower border of upper Jaw
Angle of the Jaws
Zygomatic arch
External Auditory Meatus
Teeth
60

Importance
Positive test suggests that the skull might be of
the person who is in photograph.
Negative test suggest that the skull is definitely
not of the person who is in photograph.
So, negative test has more medico-legal value.
Video Superimposition
Facial Sketching & Reconstruction
Other methods of identification are: Bone
comparison, Skull suture pattern, X-rays,
Veins of hands, Stomach picture, Deformities
etc.

61

Scars
Introduction
Scar is a fibrous tissue covered by epithelium,
which produced due to the process of healing.
Scars are permanent. They produced if the
dermis is injured.
Hair follicles, sweat glands, pigments etc are not
present on the scars.
Vascularity is comparatively less in scars.
In criminal & civil both cases, scars have great
medico-legal significance.
During the process of growing, they grow in size
but the shape remains same.
62

Characteristics
Abrasions & Incised
Stab wound
Lacerated wound
Firearm wound
Corrosives
Scalds
Burns
Vaccination
Some diseases
Better visualisation

63

Age of Scar
Age
5 to 6 days
7 to 14 days
15 to 60 days
2 to 6 months
After 6 months

Scar
Reddish/ Bluish (Angry)
Pale, Soft & Sensitive
No change
White, Hard, Glistening
No change

Erasure
Erasure can be possible by skin grafting.
Alteration (Minimization) can be done by
excision.

64

Medico-legal importance
Marks of identification.
Type of injury (by medical & legal classification)
Weapon or object
Time of assault
Previous operative procedure
Previous illness, therapeutic procedures
Their location is very much important medicolegally
Signs of delivery & type of delivery
Drug abuse & drug addiction

65

Medico-legal Importance of Eyes

1. For Identification
(a) Colour, shape & size
(b) Absence of one/both eyes & Artificial eye
(c) Deep & Prominent or bulging
(d) Squint, Nystagmus & cataract
(e) In living, eyes are important for mental &
psychological status

2. For Asphyxia
Congestion, petechial haemorrhages & proptosis

3. For Injuries
Black eye, congestion, effusion, haemorrhage, foreign
bodies, ulceration, rupture of cornea & retina, all mech.
Injuries, cataract, sublaxation of lens etc.
66

4. For poisoning
(a) Dilated Pupils: Dhatura, atropine, Belladonna, Cannabis,
Cocaine, Alcohol, Ergot, Calotropis, Strychnine, Oleander,
HCN, Anti-histaminic, Anti depressant etc.
(b) Contracted Pupils: Opium, OP compounds, Phenol,
Neostagmine, Physostigmine, Pilocarpine, Nicotine, Caffeine,
Cabamates, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines etc.
(c) Alternate Dilatation & Contraction: Aconite
(d) Large & Fixed: Anoxia & Anti cholinergic drugs
(e) small & Fixed: Opiods & Cholinergic
(f) Variable & Fixed: Hypothermia & Barbiturates
(g) Nystagmus: Ethanol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine,
Diazepines

5. Eye Diseases
6. Acuity of Vision
7. The Workmens Compensation Act

67

Hair

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The methodical study of hairs is known as

Trichology.
The growth rate is 0.4 mm/day.
Examination Points
Hair or Fiber
Human or Animal
Location of hair
Sex
Age
Alteration (bleaching, dying, disease)
Comparison
Type of removal
Type of injury
68

69

Medico-legal importance

1.

Connection between scene of crime & accused/victim

Sexual assaults
Type of object/weapon & type of injury
Foreign body or stains on hairs
Poisoning
Singeing of hairs
Differentiating burns & scalds
Age & Sex
Occupation & profession
Time since death
Blood grouping & DNA typing

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

70

Medico-Legal Importance of Teeth

The 2nd most common method

Age estimation
Sex & Blood group
Bite marks pattern
Poisons (Arsenic, Mercury, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.)
Legal classification of injuries
Dentures
In burns & putrefaction cases

71

Medico-Legal Importance of Bite marks

Useful for identification of criminals.

Human bite marks are semicircular or
crescentic.
The severity of injury can be judged on bite mark
site.
Sites of the marks are useful medico-legally
(Love bites, Self inflicted bites, artificial marks).
Race, sex, blood group, occupation, habits,
social position can be determined.

72

Tattoo Marks

Definition
They are designs made in the skin
by multiple small puncture wounds
with needles or an electric vibrator
dipped in colouring media.
Examination
During examination: Their numbers, pattern,
site, size, colour should be noted.
Their diagram should be drawn.
Their photography should be done according to
the case.
73

Colouring media/Dyes
They vary from country to country.
Commonly used dyes are: Indian Ink (Blue),
Carbon (Black), cinnabar (Red), Chromic Acid
(Green), Indigo (Blue), Cobalt (Gray), Prussian
(Blue), Ultramarine (Blue) etc.
Production
Its an Art, done by experts.
When dye is injected up to dermis, the
permanent designs are formed. But, if dye
injected deeply, Tattoo disappears gradually.

74

Sites
In India: Forearms, Legs, Upper part of
Chest, Neck & Chin
In Foreign: Arms, Shoulders, Abdomen, Back
of Neck, Chest
But they can be found anywhere in the body.
Fading/Disappearance
The rate of fading depends on composition of
dyes & depth of deposition.
Clothing prevents fading.
Constant friction & rubbing increase fading.

75

Visualisation
They easily seen even in decomposed bodies.
Tattoos are better visualised by magnifying lens.
Invisible or Faded Tattoos can be seen by UV
light & Infrared light.
Complications
Inflammation
Sepsis
Abscess
Gangrene
Syphilis, AIDS, TB, Leprosy etc.
76

Erasure
Skin Grafting
Excision
Burns & scalds
Corrosives
Injury (Scar)
Electrolysis
Carbon dioxide Snow
Caustic substances: Tannic acid, Zinc Chloride
etc.
Laser beams
Small Pox, Chicken Pox, Measles, Eczema etc.
77

Medico-legal Significance

78

"There are two ways to spread happiness;

either be the light who shines it or be
the mirror who reflects it."

Thank You

79