Semiconductor Devices

Revision energy band diagram

Dr. K. Fobelets
Room 714
k.fobelets@imperial.ac.uk
bb.imperial.ac.uk

Particle-wave duality

Quantum mechanics
De Broglie
all particles can behave like waves
Thus electrons in a semiconductor
lattice have an energy associated to
their electron wave.

Wave-particle duality - light

Newton

Huygens
1650

waves

particles
1800

T. Young

Wave-particle duality - light

Planck

Einstein
1900

E h f

Waves can behave as particles

Workfunction = minimum energy to release
electron from material

Wave-particle duality - matter

De Broglie

Einstein
1924

p 2 c 2 m02 c 4

Matter (particles) can behave as waves.

Schrdinger equation
Wave equation for particles
Classical description (1D):
Re-written by Schrdinger

p2
KE PE
V E
2m
2 d 2 ( x)
V ( x) ( x ) E ( x )
(1D):
2
2m dx

( x)

wave function of particle

V ( x) electrostatic potential seen by particle
E
total energy of particle
m
mass of particle

reduced Planck constant

Schrodinger 1925

Back to particles: (x)

probability of finding the particle atx

Solving the Schrdinger equation

What is V(x) in a periodic lattice?
kqQ
PE
x

potential energy related to the work done by bringing an e - (q<0) towards

an atom (Q>0)

V(x): electrostatic potential = work done/q = PE/q

Electrostatic potential in lattice:

-V(x)
a

e+

Simplifying problem
Step 1 electron in a box (quantum well QW):
PE

( x a / 2, a / 2) 0

-a/2

( x)
2 d 2 ( x)

E ( x )
2m dx 2

a/2

n
k
a

2
sin( kx)
a

( x)

2
cos(kx)
a

n even

n
k
a

n odd

2k 2
E (k )
2m

2k 2
E (k )
2m

Simplifying problem
Step 1 relevance
k

n
a

n 1,2,

2k 2
h2
En

n2
2
2m 2ma

-a/2

E3
E2
E1

Energy

Discrete energy levels En within QW!

a/2

Simplifying problem
Step 2 electrons in different boxes

Energy

V(x)

electrons in different boxes:

Wells not high
Thus e- will influence each other
E3
Paulis exclusion principle
Thus small changes to energy values for each e
Splitting of levels in to bands of closely spaced E2
energy levels.
E1

Distribution of e-

Schrdinger in periodic lattice: e- on discrete energy levels in bands

~1022 cm-3 of Si atoms each with 14 e-

Bands of discrete energy levels

E3

14

e-

How will all these e- be distributed?

ch
wi
th

E2
E1

ea

Energy

Paulis exclusion principle

T=0K

~1022 cm-3 of Si atoms

Energy

There are a discreet number of energy levels: STATEs

Two electrons per state (Pauli exclusion principle).
Quantum mechanics shows that available states occur in bands with gaps where no
states exist bandgap
Electrons bound closest to nucleus will sit on the lowest state.
Valence electrons will fill the upper levels.

Eg
Completely filled with e- at T=0K

Energy

Ec and Ev band edges

Conduction band
EC
EG Forbidden band bandgap
EV
Valence band

T=0K

Energy

Shine light with h>Eg

or with sufficient thermal energy

CONDUCTION BAND
Eg

free electrons
free holes

VALENCE BAND

Energy

With doping: n-type

Eg

More free electrons

free holes

Energy

With doping: p-type

Eg

free electrons
More free holes

What can energy bands teach us?

Ec

partiallyfilled

empty

Ev
filled

filled

or
overlap

metal

empty

Ec
Small
bandgapEc
Eg
Ev
Conduction
band partially
filled
Eg
Ev
Ev
Ec

No bandgap

filled

What can energy bands teach us?

Ec

partiallyfilled

Ec

Ev

Ev

filled

metal

Ec

empty

Eg
Eg

filled

or
overlap

empty

Ev
Ev
Ec

filled

insulator
Very large bandgap
Conduction band empty

What can energy bands teach us?

Ec

partiallyfilled

Ec

Ev

Ev

filled

metal

Ec

empty

Eg
Eg

filled

or
overlap

empty

Ev
Ev
Ec

filled

semiconductor insulator
Bandgap ~ kT/q
Some free electrons and holes
at room temperature

Result of simplification
A silicon lattice is 3D V(x,y,z) much more complex.
Thus energy band diagram much more complex.
We lost the information on the mass of the carriers (electrons
and holes). More accurate calculations show:
1. The existence of 2 types of carriers
electrons in conduction band
holes in valence band
2. Mass of electrons and holes is different
mcarrier for Si: mn < mp

Carrier statistics
How many carriers are available and how
are they distributed in energy?
Density of states
Occupation probability of states

Density of states
Solution of the 1-D Schrdinger equation: discrete energy levels
k

n
a

n 1,2,

n
2k 2

E (k )

2m

Each integer value of n = called state

Density of states = number of states
per unit volume, per unit energy

1 2m
g (E)

2 2 2

32

Occupation probability of states

Electrons are fermions, they must obey Paulis exclusion
principle: no two of them may occupy the same state.
Statistical mechanics Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E).
Gives the probability of finding an electron at a certain energy E.
f(E)
1

f (E)

T=0K

1 exp E E F
kT

T1
1/2

Fermi level

T2>T1
EF

Probability function and band diagram

Room temperature
Energy
empty

EF

m
ov etal
er w
lap ith
pi
ng
ba
nd
s

uc
nd
se
m
ic o

in
su
lat
o

Grey area is full at T=0

to
r

full

f(E) 1 1/2 0

EG

Density of carriers
Carriers can only occupy the available states (energy
levels)
Thus no carriers in the bandgap 8 2 2 3
gc (E)
mn E Ec
3
Density of states:
h
gv (E)

8 2 2 3
m p Ev E
3
h

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) will give the

probability a state is filled with an electron
Integrate gc(E)f(E) over the band gives the number of free
electrons
Integrate gv(E)[1-f(E)] over the band gives the number of
free holes

Density of carriers

n g c ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

Ev

g ( E )1 f ( E ) dE
v

For Ec EF kT & EF Ev kT
Density of free electrons and holes
Ec E F
n N C exp

kT

E F Ev
p NV exp

kT

Effective density of states

2m kT

N C 2

*
n
2

2m kT

N V 2
2

*
p

Density of carriers
Ec E F
n N C exp

kT

Ec E F

Ec
EF
Ev

E F Ev
p NV exp

kT

Ec
p

E F Ev

EF
Ev

Density of carriers
Density of free electrons and holes
E F Ei
n n i exp

kT

Ei E F
p n i exp

kT

Ei is the position of the Fermi level

when the material is intrinsic. Lies
midgap.
Ec
EF
Ei
Ev

How conductive is the semiconductor?

Position of Fermi level: EF
Ec E F
n N C exp

kT

E F Ev
p NV exp

kT

Fermi level represents character of semiconductor

Intrinsic
n-type
p-type
Ec
Ec
Ec
E
F
EF
Ev
Ev
Ev
n=p=ni

n>p

Material dependent

n<p

EF

Carriers: graphically (see B. Streetman)

E

Intrinsic
semiconductor

Ec

T>0K

electrons

EF
Ev

holes

a) intrinsic
1/2

g(E)
E

carrier
concentration

1 F(E)
f(E)
E

electrons

Ec
EF
Ev

holes

b) n-type

Extrinsic
semiconductor

Density of free carriers

and position of the Fermilevel are related.

1/2

g(E)
E

carrier
concentration

1 F(E)
f(E)

Ec
EF
Ev

electrons

holes

c) p-type
g(E)

1/2

1 F(E)
f(E)

carrier
concentration

g(E) Density of states

f(E) Fermi-Dirac distribution function

Linking potential energy in the energy

band diagram E(x) with electrostatic
potential V(x) and electric field E (x) .
PE E (x)

E ( x)
V ( x)
e
dV ( x)
E ( x)
dx

Energy band diagram.

EG

Ec
EF
Ei
Ev

What does an energy band diagram describe?

It gives the potential energy of free carriers
above Ec for free electrons
below Ev for free holes
In between is bandgap in which no carriers can reside

Influence of an electric field on the

energy band diagram
Represents the potential energy of the carriers
When an electric field, E is applied, carriers gain potential energy
(represented by E) in the direction of the field.

If

then Higher potential

energy E here.

Ec

EG

Since electrons drift

in opposite direction
as electric field.

Ei
Ev
x

Influence of an electric field on the

energy band diagram
Represents the energy of the carriers
When an electric field is applied, carriers gain potential energy (represented
by E) in the direction of the field.

Thus:

E(x)

Ec(x)
Ei(x)

EG

Ev(x)

Influence of an electric field on carrier

movement in the energy band diagram
Energy band diagram of a semiconductor
under an electric field
E

EG

Ec

e- opposite direction to
electric field.

Ev

h+ in direction of
electric field.

Influence of an electric field on the

energy band diagram: maths for ePE E (x)
E ( x)
V ( x)
e
E ( x)

Ec

dV ( x)
dx

1 dE ( x)
E ( x)
e dx
E ( x)

EG

Ev

1 dEc ( x)
e dx

Electric field E points uphill for electrons!

Excess carriers Internal electric field

If
& Vext = 0V ;

I = 0A

Current densities:
Jn = ennE + eDndn/dx =0
Jp = eppE - eDpdp/dx =0

n(x)

e- diffusion

x
Then

e- drift

E(x)

Dn dn/dx = -nn E
Dp dp/dx = pp E
E = -(Dn/nn) dn/dx
E = (Dp/pp) dp/dx

EF
Ev

Eg
D kT

VT

Ec

All transport equations

Steady state (DC) in short layers

Low carrier injection at 300K

dn( x)
dx
dp ( x)
J p ( x) e p p( x)E ( x) eD p
dx
d 2pn ( x)
0
2
dx
d 2n p ( x)
0
2
dx
dE ( x)

( x) e n( x) p( x) N D ( x) N A ( x)
dx
dV ( x)
E ( x)
dx
E ( x)
V ( x)
q
J n ( x) e n n( x)E ( x) eDn

nn ( x) N A ( x)
ni2
n p ( x)
n p ( x)
N A ( x)
p p ( x) N A ( x)
ni2
pn ( x )
pn ( x)
N D ( x)

Conclusions
Two types of carriers in a semiconductor
Electrons negative charge and electron mass mn
Holes positive charge and hole mass mp

Two types of current in semiconductors

Drift current, caused by external electric field
Diffusion current, caused by excess carrier
concentration.

+
Free electrons reside in the conduction band, have a negative
charge and an effective mass mn
Free holes reside in the valence band, have a positive charge and a
different effective mass mp
The simplified energy band gives the potential energy of the
carriers
No carriers can reside in the bandgap, EG
The position of the Fermi level, EF defines the type and density of
free carriers.
An electric field (internal or external) causes a tilt in the band
diagram.

For the exams you do not have to

be able to:
Solve the Schrodinger equation
Derive the density of states
Derive the expression for the electron and hole concentration.
The solutions for these are derived in the study group questions, but
the purpose is solely to satisfy your curiosity.
The equations will be given in a formulae sheets and you have to be
able to apply them, but not derive them.