Energy content of food

~ measured:
-by burning a known mass of food
- presence of oxygen
- in bomb calorimeter
a) calculate E value
b) consist : container
food sample sealed with excess
oxygen
1) Weighing the sample
2) Burn the food electrical coil ignite food
sample

E value
Amount of heat generated
Combustion of 1 gram of food
Unit : joule = J = Jg-1
gram g
~ 4.2 joules (J) = 1 calorie (cal)
Respiration
-E released (oxidation process)
-similar to combustion (burning) of food
release E (heat)
-release same amount of E as combustion

Food digestion

Food digested & transported

- circulatory system
parts of the body
Nutrients complex organic molecules
- too large pass through plasma membrane
- enter body cells
- convert into form readily absorbed
Digestion
~ break down complex food substances simpler,
soluble molecule & small enough absorb by the
body
~ breaks down Digestive enzymes
1) Carbohydrates hydrolysis
glucose molecules
(generate E)

2) Proteins

amino acids (synthesise new proteins

enzymes & hormones)

3) Lipids
(Major component of
plasma membrane)

glycerol + fatty acids

Food digestion
~ cooperative process
~ different parts of human digestive system
~ in alimentary canal
- long
Extend from mouth to anus
- muscular tract
- divide into specific region
- parts
- mouth, oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large
intestine
(appendix,caecum,colon,rectum), anus

secrete into

Digestive juices
(accessory gland)
canal

alimentary

include

Digestive glands
present

pancreas
liver
salivary glands
Stomach wall & intestinal wall

Digestion
1) Physical process
~ mechanical digestion increase surface area of
food for chemical digestion
breaks into
~ large pieces of food
smaller pieces
~ mouth slicing & chewing action of teeth
stomach smaller extend churning action
- contraction of the
muscles
Break down

2) Chemical process
(digestive simple
enzymes) soluble
~ complex food molecules
molecule
- enter the bloodstream whole body
~ involve hydrolysis reaction

Digestion in the oral cavity

Mouth
-chewing action
~ breaks food into smaller pieces
~ increase surface area of food
- digestive enzyme to act
- Presence of food
~ triggers secretion of saliva
~ by 3 pairs of salivary glands

Tongue
~ manipulates food, chewed
~ meets well with saliva
have salivary amilase
- hydrolisis of starch to maltose
~ rolled into a mass bolus (preparation
for swallowing)
a) bolus enter throat
b) pharynx junction of alimentary
canal
- passage air enters the lungs

Cartilage flap
~ epiglottis
~ closes airway prevent food from entering the
trachea
Bolus enters oesophagus (muscular tube line with
epithelium & mucous gland)
Mucus
~ lubricates bolus
~ aid the movement of the bolus
- along oesophagus
- by peristalsis
a) a series of wave-like muscular contractions along
oesophagus wall
b) squeezes bolus down the oesophagus

Cardiac sphincter
~ a ring of muscle
~ control the opening of stomach
-relax
- Bolus enters stomach

Digestion in the stomach

Stomach
- Thick-walled
- Sausage-shaped
- Below diaphragm
- Muscular sac
- Highly folded inner wall
- Epithelial lining gastric glands
- gastric juices

HCl
Creates acidic condition
pH 1.5 2.0
Optimal for the action of the enzymes
in stomach
Stop salivary amilases activity
Kill bacteria in food

Food
~ stay in stomach
~ churn & mix with gastric juice peristaltic
contractions of the stomach wall
~ become semi-fluid (chyme)

Relaxation of pyloric sphincter

duodenum
Pepsin
hydrolisis large protein into smaller chains
(polypeptides)
- Breaking down peptide bonds
Rennin
- Coagulates milk
- Convert soluble milk protein, caseinogen into
insoluble casein

Digestion in small intestine

Liver secrete bile
~
~
~
~

alkaline greenish-yellow liquid

stored in gall bladder
not contain any digestive enzymes
create alkaline environment
- pH 7.6 8.6
- for enzyme action in duodenum
~ reduce the acidity of the chyme
~ optimises the pH for enzyme action
~ enter duodenum (via bile duct)

Bile salts
- emulsify lipids
- transform lipid
tiny droplet
- provide a greater surface area
- digestion by enzymes
- allow lipid digestion proceed
rapidly
Pancreas
- Secrete pancreatic juice
1) pancreatic amylase
starch
maltose
2) trypsin
polypeptides
peptides
3) lipase
lipid droplets
glycerol + fatty acids
~ enter duodenum (via pancreatic duct)
- pH : 7.1 8.2

secrete
Glands
(wall of ileum)

Peptides + water

intestinal juice
- contain digestive enzymes
- to complete digestion of
peptides + disaccharides
erepsin

amino acids
(protein digestion)

CHO monosaccharides glucose

- fructose
- galactose
Proteins
amino acids
Lipids
fatty acids + glycerol
Vitamins & mineral small, soluble, not be digested

Digestion of cellulose in ruminants &

rodents
1)
-

The digestive system of ruminants

Herbivores ruminants & rodents
food on plants
- A high % of cellulose
~ polysaccharides
~ insoluble
~ much of E stored in complex CHO
~ breakdown enzyme cellulose

Ruminants obtain E from the breakdown of cellulose

~ plant cell walls
~ enzyme: cellulase
- not produce cellulase
- digestive system adapted to cellulose digestion

Ruminants
- cows, goats, camels
- Have 4 chambers (stomach)
~ rumen
- Rumination
~ reticulum
- Regurgitate
~ omasum
- rechew
~ abomasum
- Rumen & reticulum large communities
~ bacteria
-Secrete cellulase
~ protozoa
- digest cellulose

Digestion of cellulose by a
ruminant
Rumen
~ chewed food pass to rumen (largest compartment of stomach)
~ cellulase breaks down cellulose products absorbed by
bacteria
rest cow
Reticulum
~ food enters reticulum
- cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis
- content of reticulum (cud)
- regurgitated bit by bit into mouth
- chewed again
- helps soften & break down cellulose
- move accessible microbial action in other parts of stomach
Omasum
~ cud reswallowed
- moves to omasumBroken down
~ large particles of food peristalsis
smaller pieces

Abomasum
- True stomach of the cow
- Gastric juices (digestive enzymes)
complete the digestion of proteins
- Pass through small intestine
digested & absorbed (normal way)

Digestive system of rodents & other

herbivores
Rodents rats, rabbit etc
- Caecum & appendix
enlarge
- store cellulase producing bacteria
Rabbits
- Breakdown products pass through alimentary canal
twice
- 1st faeces produced at night
- soft & watery
- eaten again absorb the products of
bacterial breakdown (2nd time)
- 2nd faeces drier & harder
- Allow to recover the lost of nutrients (1st faeces)

The differences between the

processes of cellulose in digestion in
Humans
Ruminants
Rodents & other herbivores

human
Not produce enzymes digest
cellulose
Cellulose
- not provide nutrients for human
- pass through digestive tract
~ stimulate intestinal lining
- secrete mucus
- aids in movement of food via
intestinal tract

ruminants
Cellulose digestion
By symbiotic microorganism
eg: cellulase-producing bacteria
- Occurs in rumen & reticulum
(stomach)

Not only digest cellulose simple

sugar
Convert sugars variety of nutrients
essential to ruminants

Rodents & other herbivors

Cellulose digestion
by symbiotic bacteria
- occurs in large intestine &
caecum
- Nourishing by-products obtained
(fermentation by bacteria)

Problems associated with food

digestion

Incomplete digestion of food

- Severe pain nausea, vomiting, bloated
stomach
- Caused by
~ excessive intake of food
~ eating too much oily food
~ eating too fast
- Food not chewed properly before swallowing
- stomach cannot digest food properly
- decrease the effectiveness of digestive
enzymes
- Prevention eating moderately
- chewing food properly

Reduced production of specific digestive

enzymes
~ lactose intolerance
- adults
- difficult to digest lactose
- lack of lactose
~ damage to organs
- pancreas
- reduce production of enzymes starch,
protein & lipids

Gallstone preventing the flow of bile

Formation of gallstone
- Bile duct
- Gall bladder
- From hardening of cholesterol
- Excessive secretion of bilirubin & bile salt
- Size a grain of sand / a golf ball
- Block the bile duct
- bile cannot be channeled out
- lipid cannot be emulsified
- difficult to digest
- Symptoms fever, vomiting, jaundice, continuous pain
(upper abdomen)
In pancreatic duct
- Pancreatic juices cannot flow out
- Severe pain
- Inflammation of pancreas
Obese people

Absorption & assimilation of digestive

food
Ileum major site of nutrient absorption
Adaptive characteristics of digestive system
Small intestine
~ wall recovered with epithelial cell
~ length 6m longest section in alimentary canal
~ intestinal lining highly folded
- covered tiny
villi
- finger like projections
microvilli

How are the villi adapted for the process of

food absorption?

1) Numerous in no. increase surface

area of ileum for absorption
2) thinwalled undigested food can
be absorbed (1-cell thick)
3) A network of blood capillaries
absorption & efficient transport of
digested food
4) Special structures (lacteals)
absorb fatty acids + glycerol

Absorption of digested food

1) Nutrient absorption

diffusion
active transport

~ glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins,

diffuse
minerals
epithelial cells
~ transport across epithelial lining active transport
E used
~ fatty acids + glycerol
enter epithelial cells
Recombine form tiny
droplets of lipids

2) glucose, amino acids, water-soluble

vitamins & minerals
~ diffusion
~ absorb directly into the blood
~ through blood capillaries in villi
Blood capillaries
- Converge into hepatic portal vein
- Leads to liver
- Transport to all parts of the body

3) Lipid droplets move into lacteal

Fat soluble vitamins absorb into lacteals
transported together with
lipids
Lacteal
Fluid

larger vessel/lymphatic system

lipids + fat soluble vitamins
enters lymphatic system
Subclavian
veins
right lymphatic duct
& thoracic
duct
bloodstream

Assimilation of digested food

- Nutrients used to form complex
compounds / structural components
amino acids
proteins
(protoplasm)
- Liver
~ checkpoint
~ control the amount of nutrients
released into blood circulatory system
heart

The process of assimilation in the

liver
Amino acids pass through the liver before reach blood
circulatory system

Liver

synthesise plasma proteins from amino acids

Blood clotting & osmoregulation

Convert : amino acids

glucose
cannot be stored in the body
broken down in the liver (deamination)
Urea
~ nitrogenous waste products
~ produce & transport to the kidneys

Glucose
- Used for respiration
- Glucose
glycogen
(excess)
(stored in liver)
lipid (glycogen full)
Lipid
heart
transport in bloodstream
to body cell

The process of assimilation in the

cells
Amino acids enter the cell
uses

synthesis new protoplasm

repair damage tissues
synthesis enzymes + hormones
synthesis protein of plasma membrane

Glucose
~ reach the body
~ uses:
various chemical process
eg:muscle contraction & synthesis of proteins
~ excess glucose stored as glycogen (muscles)
- long chain CHO molecule
- insoluble

Lipids phospholipids + cholesterol

Major component of plasma membrane
Fat
~ stored around organs
~ cushion protect organs from
injuries
~ excess in adipose tissue
- reserve E
~ oxidised to release E lacks glucose

Formation of faeces &

defaecation
The process of defaecation
Absorption of nutrients small intestine
colon
(reabsorption of water & mineral)
Intestinal content
~ water
~ undigested food substances
~ dead cells & dead bacteria
~ indigestible fibre cellulose

slow peristalsis
colon

Colon
Reabsorption of water & minerals
~ reabsorbs 90% - water & minerals into bloodstream
~ absorption of water undigested
- remain in colon
- reabsorbed
~ faeces
contain indigestible residue of food
- remains after process of digestion
absorption of nutrients & water
- dead cells shed from
intestinal lining
bile pigments
- toxic substances eliminated from the body

Wall of colon
- Secrete mucus
- Help to bind faeces & lubricates movement of faeces
along the colon
Rectum
- 12 24 hours in colon
- Faeces pass to rectum temporary storage
- After water absorbed
undigested residue hardens
form faeces
accumulate
- P in rectum increase
- expel the faeces from the body

The process of defaecation

Defaecation
- Elimination of faeces
- Controlled by muscles (around anus, opening the
rectum)
Rectum
- Full
- Muscles of the rectal wall
anus

contract
eject the faeces via

Microorganisms in the colon

Escherichia coli
~ not harmful
~ lives symbiotically in the intestines
~ digest organic substances in colon
~ synthesis vitamins B & K by-product of its metabolism
Presence of useful microorganisms
~ secrete antibiotics
inhibit the life cycle of harmful microorganisms
eg: Lactobacillus acidophilus
- maintain a stable environment in alimentary canal
- overuse antibiotics
reduce microbial population
food digestion & nutrient absorption
(intestine) will be affected

Problems related to defaecation

Constipation
~ faeces moving too slowly via colon
~ greater amount of water reabsorbed faeces hard
~ painful defaecation
~ avoided by drinking a lot of water
daily diet fibre
- help the movement of undigested food
along the colon
- defaecation
Water
~ soften the fibre
~ increase its bulk
- stimulates muscles to push out the residue
- prevent constipation

Haemorroids
~ chronic constipation
~ abnormally swollen veins in the rectum & anus
- bulging haemorrhoidal veins
irritate
surrounding membranes

swell

burn

itch

very painful
~ caused by
- too much pressure in rectum
- force blood veins to stretch
- bulge, rupturing

bleed

Colon cancer
~ tumours at large intestine
~ diets in fat
fat
formation of cancercausing
chemicals (carcinogen)
~ vegetables & high fibre foods
- wholemeal bread
- cereals
- reduce the risk of cancer