BASIC GEOLOGY

Chapter 3
Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics

Chapter Overview
Rocks and Minerals of
the Earths Crust
Major Relief Features of
the Earths Surface
Plate Tectonics
Continents of the Past

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

The Earths Interior
Core: spherical central mass of the
Earth composed largely of iron; consists
of an outer liquid zone and an inner
solid zone
Mantle: rock layer of the Earth beneath
the crust and surrounding the core,
composed of ultramafic igneous rock of
silicate minerals
Crust: outermost solid layer of the
Earth, composed largely of silicate
minerals
Oceanic crust: mafic rocks
Continental crust: lower zone mafic
rock, upper zone felsic
Continental crust thicker than
oceanic

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

The Earths Interior
Most abundant elements in crust:
Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium

Minerals: naturally occurring inorganic crystalline chemical

compounds
Rocks:
Usually composed of 2 or more minerals
Rock classes: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock: rock formed from the
cooling of magma

Magma: mobile, high-temperature

molten state of rock

Intrusive Igneous rock: rock formed

from magma that solidifies below the
Earths surface
Visible mineral crystals

Extrusive igneous rock: rock formed

from magma that cooled rapidly at the
surface or under the ocean
Mineral crystals microscopic

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Igneous Rocks
Most composed of
silicate minerals:
contain silicon and
oxygen
Felsic rock:
Felsic minerals
Light-colored
Less dense

Mafic rock:
Mafic minerals
Dark-colored
More dense

Ultramafic rock:
Heavy mafic minerals
Very dense
Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rock: rock formed from the accumulation of sediment
Clasticformed from rock and mineral fragments
Chemically precipitated: formed by chemical precipitation from
seawater or salty inland lakes
Organic: formed from organic material

Insert figure 8.6

here

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Sandstone,
deposited in
layers

Conglomerate
Shale

Chalk, a form of limestone

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Coal, a fossil fuel, is an organic sedimentary rock

Fossil Fuels: naturally

occurring hydrocarbon
compounds produced
from remains of organic
matter enclosed in
rock; examples are
coal, petroleum (crude
oil), and natural gas

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rock: rock altered in physical or chemical composition by heat,
pressure, or other processes taking place at a substantial depth below the
surface

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Rocks and Minerals of the Earths Crust

The Cycle of Rock Change

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

The Geologic Timescale
4.5 billion years of Earths history
Divided into Eons, Eras, Periods

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
Lithosphere: rigid outer shell of Earth, includes crust and upper mantle
Asthenosphere: plastic layer below the lithosphere

Lithospheric Plate: segment of lithosphere moving as a unit, in

contact with adjacent lithospheric plates along plate boundaries
Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

Relief Features of the Continents
Active mountain-making regions:

Mountains result from volcanism or tectonic activity.

Active mountain-making belts form alpine chains: narrow zones along the margins
of lithospheric plates

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

Relief Features of the Continents
Continental crust includes:
Active mountain-making belts
Regions of stable, older rock
Continental shields: very old, low-lying igneous and metamorphic rocks
Mountain roots: remains of older mountain belts, long, narrow ridges

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

Relief Features of the Ocean Basins
Oceanic crust <60 million years old; continental crust >1 billion years old
Ocean basins have:
Midoceanic ridge
Axial rift

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Major Relief Features of the Earths Surface

Relief Features of the Ocean Basins
Passive continental margins:
no strong tectonic activity
within 50 million years

Active continental margins:

deep offshore trenches,
volcanic activity

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
Motion of lithospheric plates drives formation of Earths
mountains and other surface features.
Extensional tectonic activity
Spreading boundary
Plates pulled apart
Faults created

Compressional tectonic activity

Converging boundary
Plates pushed together
Creates folds and overthrust faults

Plates move past each other

Transform boundary
Transform faults

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
Plate Boundaries
Spreading boundary
Converging boundary
Transform boundary
Plate Tectonics: theory of
tectonic activity dealing with
lithospheric plates and their
activity

Subduction: descent of the edge

of a lithospheric plate under an
adjoining plate and into the
asthenosphere

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
Subduction Tectonics
Plates undergoing subduction are associated
with active continental margins
Sediments accumulate in deep trench
Deep ocean sediments
Terrestrial sediments
Deformed, scraped off subducting plate
Wedge forms at the plate boundary
Sediments transformed into metamorphic
rock
Subduction: descent of the edge of a lithospheric plate
under an adjoining plate and into the asthenosphere

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
Orogens and Collisions
Continental suture: Long, narrow zone of crustal deformation produced by a
continental collision; examples: Himalayan Range, European Alps.
Continental lithospheric plates converge:
Both buoyantneither subducts
Orogeny: major episode of tectonic activity resulting in strata being deformed by folding
and faulting
Nappe: overturned recumbent fold of strata, usually associated with thrust sheets in a
collision orogen

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
The Global System of Lithospheric Plates

The Lithospheric Plates and Their Motions

Visualizing Physical Geography
Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
Continental Rupture and New Ocean Basins
Passive continental margins are created by
continental rupture and spreading
Crust uplifted and stretched
Magma rises to form new rock
Rift valley forms
Rift widens and narrow ocean is formed
Ocean basin widens

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Plate Tectonics
The Power Source for Plate Movements
Radiogenic heat: heat generated by the decay of radioactive isotopes
Heat generated by decay of isotopes of uranium, thorium, potassium
Independent of surface conditions
Heat keeps rock below crust close to melting point
Radiogenic heat power source for plate motions
Exact mechanism unknown
Possibly convection currents in mantle
Possibly gravity

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Continents of the Past

Alfred Wegener proposed first fullscale scientific theory of the
breakup of one supercontinent
into multiple drifting continents

Pangaea: supercontinent
Intact about 300 million years ago
Outlines of continents fit across ocean
Tectonic structures match across
continents

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Continents of the Past

Wilson Cycle: the continents have united
and broken up repeatedly through Earths
history
Movements of
the continents
from 600
million years
ago to 300
million years
ago

Movements of
the continents
from 200 million
years ago to
present

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.

Continents of the Past

Satellite data show rates

of plate movement from
about 5 to 10 cm (2-4
inches) per year

Visualizing Physical Geography

Copyright 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers Inc.