Chapter 14: Forging of

Metals

14.1 Introduction
Forging: a Process in which the
work-piece is shaped by compressive
forces applied through various dies
and tools.
Typical forged products: bolts, rivets,
connecting rods, shafts for turbines,
gears, hand tools, etc...
Figure 14.3 shows a part made by 3
different processes: (a) casting, (b)
machining, (c) forging

14.1 Introduction

14.1 Introduction
Cold forged parts have good surface
finish and dimensional accuracy.
Hot forging requires smaller forces,
but it produces dimensional accuracy
and surface finish that are not as
good as in cold forging.

14.2 Open die forging

Most open-die forgings generally weigh 15500 Kg, forgings as heavy as 275 tons
have been made.
Sizes may range from very small parts
(nails, pins, and bolts) up to 23 m for ships
shafts.
Upsetting or flat-die forging (Fig. 14.3): The
die surfaces in open-die forging may have
simple cavities, to produce relatively
simple forgings.

14.2 Open die forging

Figure 14.3: (a) Ideal deformation of a solid cylindrical specimen

compressed between flat frictionless dies, an operation known as
upsetting. (b) Deformation in upsetting with friction at the dieworkpiece interfaces. Note barrelling of the billet caused by friction.

14.2 Open die forging

Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces at the diework-piece interfaces that oppose the outward flow of the
materials at these interfaces. Barreling can be minimized by
using an effective Lubricant.
Barreling can also occur in upsetting hot work-pieces
between cold dies. The material at and near the interfaces
cools rapidly, while the rest of the work-piece remains
relatively hot. Thus, the material at the ends of the workpiece has higher resistance to deformation than the
material at its center. Consequently, the central portion of
the work-piece expands laterally to a greater extent than do
its ends.
Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or eliminated
by using heated dies.

14.2 Open die forging -cogging

Cogging (drawing out): an open-die

forging operation in which thickness
of a bar is reduced by successive
forging steps at specific intervals.
Because contact area per stroke is
small, a long section of a bar can be
reduced in thickness without
requiring large forces or machinery

14.2 Open die forging -cogging

Figure 14.4: (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a

rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use a similar procedure to reduce the
thickness of parts in small increments by heating the workpiece and
hammering it numerous times along the length of the part. (b) Reducing
the diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the die

14.2 Open die forging

The forging force, F, in an open-die forging

operation on a solid cylindrical piece:

Yf : flow stress of the material, stress required
to continue plastic deformation of the workpiece at a particular true strain.
: coefficient of friction,
r and h: radius and height of the work-piece
example

14.2 Open die forging

Example14.1: A solid cylindrical slug

made of 304 stainless steel is 150 mm
in diameter and 100 mm high. It is
reduced in height by 50% at room
temperature by open-die forging with
flat dies. Assuming that the coefficient
of friction is 0.2, calculate the forging
force at the end of the stroke.

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

In impression-die forging, the workpiece acquires the shape of the die

cavities while being forged between
two shaped dies (Fig. 14.5).
The thin flash cools rapidly, and
because of its frictional resistance, it
subjects the material in the die
cavity to high pressures, thereby
encouraging the filling of the die
cavity.

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

FIGURE I4.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round
billet. Note the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently
trimmed off. (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

Pre-forming processes, such as
fullering and edging (Figs.14.7b
and c), are used to distribute the
material into various regions of the
blank.
In fullering material is distributed
away from an area.
In edging, it is gathered into a
localized area.
The part is then formed into the
rough shape of a connecting rod by
a process called blocking, using
blocker dies.
The final operation is the finishing of
the forging in impression dies that
give the forging its final shape. The
flash is removed later by a
trimming operation.

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

The blank is
placed on the
lower die and, as
the upper die
begins to descend,
the blanks shape
gradually changes,
as is shown for the
forging of a
connecting rod in
fig. 14.7a.

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

The forging force, F, required
to carry out an impressiondie forging operation can be
estimated from the formula
F = KYfA
where K is a multiplying factor
obtained from Table 14.2, Yf is
the flow stress of the material
at the forging temperature,
and A is the projected area of
the forging including the flash.

14.3 impression-die and closed-die forging

In true closed-die or flash-less

forging ,flash does not form and the
work-piece completely fills the die
cavity. Consequently, the forging
pressure is very high,
Undersize blanks prevent complete
filling of die cavity.
Oversize blanks generate excessive
pressures and may cause dies to fail.

14.3.1 Precision forging

In order to reduce the number of additional
finishing operations required-hence the cost-the
trend has been toward greater precision in forged
products (net-shape forming).
Special dies produce parts having greater
accuracies than those from impression die forging
and requiring much less machining.
Process requires higher capacity equipment
because of greater forces required to obtain fine
details on part.
Precision forging requires special and more
complex dies, precise control of billets volume and
shape, accurate positioning of the billet in die
cavity, and hence higher investment. However,

14.4 Various Forging

Operations- Coining
The slug is coined in a completely
closed die cavity.
In order to produce fine details the
pressures required can be as high as
5 or 6 times the strength of the
material.
Lubricants cannot be applied in
coining, because they can become
entrapped in the die cavities, and
being incompressible, prevent the full
reproduction of die surface details.
Coining process is also used with
forgings and with other products, to
improve surface finish and to impart
the desired dimensional accuracy.
This process, called sizing, involves
high pressures, with little change in
part shape during sizing.

Figure 14.10: Schematic

illustration of the coining process

14.4 Various Forging

Operations- Heading
Heading:
upsetting operation
usually performed
at end of round rod
or wire to produce
a larger x-section.
Typical products
are nails, bolt
heads, screws,
rivets, and various
other fasteners(Fig.
14.11).

FIGURE 14.11: (a) Heading operation to form

heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations used to produce a
typical bolt head by heading.

14.4 Various Forging

Operations- Heading
Rules for upset forging:
1. Max Length of unsupported metal that
can be upset in one blow without
buckling: 3 times the diameter of bar.
2. lengths of stock greater than 3 times
diameter may be upset successfully
such that the diameter of the cavity is
no more than 1.5 the diameter of the
bar.