Nutrition

Nutrient any substance that promotes normal

growth, maintenance, and repair

Major nutrients carbohydrates, lipids, proteins

Other nutrients vitamins, minerals, water

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USDA Food Guide Pyramid

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Figure 24.1a

Nutrition

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Figure 24.1b

Carbohydrates- Simple

Monosaccharides & Disaccharides

Figure 2.13b
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Carbohydrates- Complex

Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars

Figure 2.13c
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Carbohydrates- CHO

Simple CHO- (sugars)

1-2 sugars linked together

Glucose, fructose, sucrose (table sugar)

Soft drinks, candy, fruit, ice cream, fruit drinks

Complex CHO- (includes starches)

Chains of 2 or more sugars linked together

Long chains = starch

Bread, cereal, flour, pasta, nuts, potatoes

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Carbohydrates- Functions

Glucose Fuel used by all cells to make ATP

Neurons & RBCs - glucose only to make ATP

< 100g glucose/day leads to brain death

CHO used as cell surface markers; glycoproteins

Ribose, deoxyribose for RNA & DNA

Excess glucose stored as glycogen or fat

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Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)

Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule

Most abundant dietary fat

Figure 2.14a
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Lipids

> dietary lipid = triglycerides (neutral fats, triacylglycerols)

Saturated fats

Meat

Dairy

Coconut

Hydrogenated or trans fats (margarine, solid shortenings)

Unsaturated fats

Nuts

Seeds

Olive oil monounsat.

Most vegetable oils

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Lipids

Cholesterol

Egg yolk

Meat

Shellfish

Milk products

85% - liver

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Lipids

Essential fatty acids- Must be ingested

Linoleic & Linolenic acids

In vegetable oils

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Lipids- functions

Helps body absorb fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

Triglycerides -major fuel: hepatocytes, skeletal

muscle

Phospholipids- myelin sheaths, cell membranes

Adipose tissue- cushioning, insulation, energy

storage

Prostaglandins- help regulate: smooth muscle

contraction, BP, inflammation

Cholesterol- plasma membranes, bile salts, steroid

hormones

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Lipids: Dietary Requirements

Higher for infants and children than for adults

The American Heart Association suggests:

Fats < 30% total caloric intake

Saturated fats not >10% total fat intake

Daily cholesterol not > 200 mg

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Amino Acids

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Amino group

Figure 2.15a-c

Amino Acids

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Figure 2.15d, e

Protein

Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20

different amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds

Figure 2.16
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Proteins

Complete proteins

Have all essential amino acids (amino acids that must be

ingested, cannot be synthesized)

In: eggs, milk, milk products, meat, fish

Incomplete proteins

Lack essential amino acids

In: legumes, nuts, seeds, grains, vegetables

Daily intake - ~ 0.8g/kg of body weight;

(a deck of
cards); > protein intake over time = bone loss;

All or none rule- all a.a. needed for a certain protein must
be present in cell at same time, in adequate amts.

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Proteins - Functions

Structural Proteins:

Keratin, elastin, collagen, muscle

Functional Proteins:

Enzymes, hormones

All gene products are polypeptides

Protein breakdown provides Nitrogen & a.a

for new proteins; urea eliminated by kidneys

Used as fuel - starvation

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Proteins: Synthesis and Hydrolysis

Nitrogen balance

Rate of protein synthesis = rate of breakdown

Positive synthesis > breakdown ; (normal in

children and tissue repair)

*Negative synthesis < breakdown; (e.g., stress,

burns, infection, or injury)

Hormonal control

Anabolic hormones accelerate protein synthesis

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Essential Amino Acids

Cys can substitute for met
Tyr can substitue for Phe

8 adult

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Figure 24.2

Vitamins

Organic cmpds needed in minute amounts for

metabolic rxns

Function as Coenzymes/cofactors

Rate limiting; (rxn will not occur without them)

Vitamins D, K, & B- non essential

Others- essential (must be ingested)

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Vitamins

Water-soluble: absorbed in GI tract

B-complex, C

B12 - requires intrinsic factor

Excess excreted in urine

Fat-soluble vitamins: bind lipids

A, D, E, K

Excess not excreted, can be toxic

Vitamins A, C, E - antioxidants

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Minerals

Seven required:

Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium,

chloride, and magnesium

Dozens required in trace amounts

Cofactors- Ca 2+ in blood clotting

Membrane functions

Structually- Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium

salts for bone

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Minerals

Sodium & chloride:

osmolarity, water balance, nerve, muscle function

Uptake and excretion must be balanced to prevent

toxic overload

In vegetables, legumes, milk, some meats

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Metabolism

Metabolism: biochemical reactions inside cells

involving nutrients

Two types of reactions

Anabolism: synthesis of large molecules from small

ones

Catabolism: hydrolysis of complex structures to

simpler ones

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Metabolism

All chemical reactions necessary to maintain life

Anabolic reactions

dehydration synthesis of macromolecules from

building blocks

Builds bonds, requires energy

Catabolic reactions

Hydrolysis of macromolecules into building

blocks

Breaks bonds, releases energy

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Biologically Important Macromolecules

Macromolecule

Building Blocks

1.

Carbohydrates

1.

Simple sugars

2.

Lipids

2.

Fatty acids

3.

Proteins

3.

Amino acids

4.

Nucleic acids

4.

Nucleotides

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Metabolism

Cellular respiration: catabolism of food fuels

and capture of energy to form ATP in cells

Enzymes shift high-energy phosphate groups of

ATP to other molecules (phosphorylation)

Phosphorylated molecules are activated to perform

cellular functions

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Stages of Metabolism
Processing of nutrients

1.

Digestion, absorption and transport to tissues

2.

Cellular processing (in cytoplasm)

3.

Synthesis of lipids, proteins, and glycogen, or

Catabolism (glycolysis) into intermediates

Oxidative (mitochondrial) breakdown of
intermediates into CO2, water, and ATP

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Stages of Metabolism

Three major stages

1. Digestion fuel (food) breakdown to tissues
2. Anabolic rxns: energy excess
Lipids, proteins, glycogen synthesized from nutrients
Catabolic rxns: energy needed
Pyruvic acid, acetyl CoA produced from glucose, FA
3. Oxidative rxns: (Catabolic) pyruvic acid & acetyl CoA
broken down to CO2, H2O, ATP

Must transfer potential energy from chemical bonds in

foods to chemical energy in the form of ATP. ATP stores
potential energy that can be released as kinetic energy
for cells to do work.
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http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/Pathways/index.html

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Anabolic
products :

Catabolic
products :

Proteins

a.a, glucose,
pyruvic acid,
acetyl CoA,
glycerol, FA

Glycogen
Fats
Water, ATP

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Figure 24.3

Stage 1 Digestion in
GI tract lumen to
absorbable forms.
Transport via blood to
tissue cells.

PROTEINS

CARBOHYDRATES

Amino acids

Glucose and other sugars

Stage 2 Anabolism
Proteins
(incorporation into
molecules) and
catabolism of nutrients
NH3
to form intermediates
within tissue cells.

FATS

Glycogen

Glucose

Fatty acids

Glycerol

Fats

Pyruvic acid
Acetyl CoA

Stage 3 Oxidative breakdown

of products of stage 2 in
Infrequent
mitochondria of tissue cells.
CO2 is liberated, and H atoms
removed are ultimately delivered
to molecular oxygen, forming
water. Some energy released is
used to form ATP.

Krebs
cycle

CO2
Oxidative
phosphorylation
(in electron
transport chain)

O2
H2O

Catabolic reactions
Anabolic reactions
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Figure 24.3

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Oxidation; gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

Oxidized substances lose electrons and energy

Reduced substances gain electrons and energy

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Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Oxidized- lost electrons; lose energy; gain O2

Reduced- gain electrons, gain energy

Whenever one substance is oxidized, another

substance is reduced

Coenzymes in redox rxns = electron acceptors

(electrons: Hydrogens)

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

This is a way to transfer energy in a step-wise, nondestructive way for cells

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

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Figure 2.22

ATP Synthesis
Two mechanisms

1.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

2.

Oxidative phosphorylation

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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

High-energy
phosphate groups are
transferred directly
from phosphorylated
substrates to ADP

ATP is synthesized
via substrate-level
phosphorylation in
glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle

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Figure 24.4a

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Chemiosmotic process

Couples the movement of substances across a

membrane to chemical reactions

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

In the mitochondria

Carried out by electron transport proteins

Nutrient energy is used to create H+ gradient across

mitochondrial membrane

H+ flows through ATP synthase

Energy is captured and attaches phosphate groups to

ADP

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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis: Oxidative Phosphorylation

High H+ concentration in
intermembrane space

Mitochondrial Membrane
Proton
pumps
(electron
transport
chain)
ATP
synthase
Energy
from food
ADP +
Low H concentration
in mitochondrial matrix
(b) Oxidative phosphorylation
+

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Figure 24.4b

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36 ATP +

heat

Glucose is catabolized in three pathways:

1. Glycolysis - cytosol
2. Krebs cycle - mitochondrial matrix
3. Oxidative phosphorylation & electron transport
chain/systemmitochondrial membrane

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Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)

Chemical energy

Glycolysis
Glucose

Cytosol

Krebs
cycle

Pyruvic
acid

Mitochondrial
cristae
Via substrate-level
phosphorylation

1 During glycolysis,
each glucose
molecule is broken
down into two
molecules of pyruvic
acid in the cytosol.

Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation

Mitochondrion

2 The pyruvic acid then enters

the mitochondrial matrix, where
the Krebs cycle decomposes it
to CO2. During glycolysis and
the Krebs cycle, small amounts
of ATP are formed by substratelevel phosphorylation.

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Via oxidative
phosphorylation

3 Energy-rich electrons picked up by

coenzymes are transferred to the electron transport chain, built into the cristae
membrane. The electron transport chain
carries out oxidative phosphorylation,
which accounts for most of the ATP
generated by cellular respiration.
Figure 24.5

Glycolysis

10-step pathway

Anaerobic does not require oxygen

Occurs in the cytosol

Glucose 2 pyruvic acid molecules

Three major phases

1.

Sugar activation

2.

Sugar cleavage

3.

Sugar oxidation and ATP formation

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Glycolysis

10 enzyme catalyzed rxns

Glycolysis

ATP

Krebs
cycle

ATP

Electron transport chain

and oxidative
phosphorylation

in cytosol

ATP

Products:

Glucose
Phase 1
Sugar
activation

Key:
= Carbon
atom
Pi = Inorganic
phosphate

2 ATP
2 ADP
Fructose-1,6bisphosphate
P
P

Phase 2
Sugar
cleavage Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
P
Pi

Glyceraldehyde
phosphate
P
2 NAD+

4 ADP
Phase 3
Sugar
oxidation
and formation
of ATP

2 NADH+H+

4 ATP

2 pyruvic acid
Converted to lactic acid
if O2 not readily
available

Enter aerobic
pathways if O2 is
readily available
2 NADH + H+
(reduced NAD+)
Net gain of 2 ATP

2 Pyruvic acid
2 NADH+H+
O2
To Krebs
cycle
(aerobic
pathway)

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O2

2 NAD+

2 Lactic acid

Figure 24.6

Krebs Cycle

Occurs in mitochondrial matrix

Fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids

Breakdown products of fats and proteins can also

enter the cycle

PLAY

Animation: Krebs Cycle

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Glycolysis

Krebs
cycle

Electron transport chain

and oxidative
phosphorylation

Carbon atom
Inorganic phosphate
Coenzyme A

Cytosol
Pyruvic acid from glycolysis

Transitional
phase
Mitochondrion
(matrix)

3 NADH + H+
1 FADH2
2 CO2
1 ATP

NADH+H+
Acetyl CoA

Oxaloacetic acid
NADH+H+

Products:

NAD+

CO2

(pickup molecule)

Citric acid
(initial reactant)

NAD+
Malic acid

Isocitric acid
NAD+

Krebs cycle

CO2
NADH+H+

-Ketoglutaric acid

Fumaric acid

CO2

FADH2

Succinic acid
FAD
GTP

Succinyl-CoA

NAD+
NADH+H+

GDP +

ADP

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Figure 24.7

Electronic Energy Gradient

The transfer of energy from NADH + H+ and

FADH2 to oxygen releases large amounts of energy

This energy is released in a stepwise manner

through the electron transport chain

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Electron Transport Chain

Food (glucose) is oxidized and the released

hydrogens:

Are transported by coenzymes NADH and FADH2

Enter a chain of proteins bound to metal atoms

(cofactors)

Combine with molecular oxygen to form water

Release energy

The energy released is harnessed to attach

inorganic phosphate groups (Pi) to ADP, making
ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

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Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation

The hydrogens delivered to the chain are split into

protons (H+) and electrons

The protons are pumped across the inner

mitochondrial membrane by:

NADH dehydrogenase (FMN, Fe-S)

Cytochrome b-c1

Cytochrome oxidase (a-a3)

The electrons are shuttled from one acceptor to the

next

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Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation

Electrons are delivered to oxygen, forming oxygen

ions

Oxygen ions attract H+ to form water

H+ pumped to the intermembrane space:

Diffuses back to the matrix via ATP synthase

Releases energy to make ATP

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Electronic Energy Gradient

The electrochemical proton gradient across the

inner membrane:

Creates a pH gradient

Generates a voltage gradient

These gradients cause H+ to flow back into the

matrix via ATP synthase

PLAY

Electron Transport

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Glycolysis

Krebs
cycle

Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation

Intermembrane
space

Inner
mitochondrial
membrane

Mitochondrial
matrix

2 H+ +
FADH2
NADH + H
(carrying
from food)

1
2

ATP
synthase

FAD

NAD+

Electron Transport Chain

Electrons
are transferred from complex to complex and
some of their energy is used to pump protons (H+) into the
intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient.

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ADP +

Chemiosmosis
ATP synthesis is powered by the
flow of H+ back across the inner
mitochondrial membrane through
ATP synthase.

Figure 24.8

Summary of Cellular Respiration

Cytosol

2 NADH + H

Electron
shuttle across
mitochondrial
membrane
Glycolysis
Glucose

Pyruvic
acid

Mitochondrion
+

2 NADH + H+

2
Acetyl
CoA

6 NADH + H+

Krebs
cycle

(4 ATP2 ATP
used for
activation
energy)
Net +2 ATP
by substrate-level
phosphorylation

2 FADH2

Electron transport
chain and oxidative
phosphorylation
10 NADH + H+ x 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 x 1.5 ATP

+2 ATP
by substrate-level
phosphorylation
About
32 ATP

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+ about 28 ATP
by oxidative
phosphorylation

Maximum
ATP yield
per glucose

Figure 24.12

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Glycogenesis
formation of glycogen
when glucose supplies
exceed cellular need for
ATP synthesis

Glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen
in response to low blood
glucose

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Figure 24.12

Gluconeogenesis

Glucose synthesized from noncarbohydrate

molecules

Occurs mostly in liver but some in kidney, small

intestine

Protects brain from low glucose

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Lipid Metabolism

Fat catabolism yields 9 kcal per gram (vs 4 kcal

per gram of carbohydrate or protein)

Most products of fat digestion are transported as

chylomicrons and are hydrolyzed by endothelial
enzymes into fatty acids and glycerol

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Lipid Metabolism

Only triglycerides are routinely oxidized for

energy

The two building blocks are oxidized separately

Glycerol pathway

Fatty acid pathway

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Lipid Metabolism

Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate

Enters the Krebs cycle

Equivalent to 1/2 glucose

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Lipid Metabolism

Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation, which produces

Two-carbon acetic acid fragments, which enter the

Krebs cycle

Reduced coenzymes, which enter the electron

transport chain

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Lipid Metabolism

Lipids
Lipase

Glycerol

Fatty acids

H2O
Glyceraldehyde
phosphate
(a glycolysis intermediate)
Glycolysis
Pyruvic acid

Oxidation
in the mitochondria

Acetyl CoA

Coenzyme A
NAD+
NADH + H+
FAD
FADH2
Cleavage
enzyme
snips off
2C fragments

Krebs
cycle

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Figure 24.14

Lipogenesis

Excess dietary glycerol and fatty acids undergo

lipogenesis to form triglycerides

Glucose is easily converted into fat since acetyl

CoA is:

An intermediate in glucose catabolism

The starting molecule for the synthesis of fatty

acids

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Lipolysis

The reverse of lipogenesis

Oxaloacetic acid is necessary for complete

oxidation of fat

Without it, acetyl CoA is converted by ketogenesis

in the liver into ketone bodies (ketones)

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Lipolysis & Lipogenesis

Glycolysis
Glucose
Stored fats
in adipose
tissue
Dietary fats

Glycerol
Triglycerides
(neutral fats)

Lipogenesis
Fatty acids

Ketone
bodies

Ketogenesis (in liver)

Steroids
Bile salts
Catabolic reactions

Glyceraldehyde
phosphate
Pyruvic acid

Certain
amino
acids

Acetyl CoA
CO2 + H2O
+
Cholesterol

Krebs
cycle

Electron
transport

Anabolic reactions

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Figure 24.15

Lipid Metabolism:
Synthesis of Structural Materials

Phospholipids structual components of:

Myelin sheaths

Cell membranes

In Liver:

lipoproteins for transport of cholesterol and fats

clotting factor

Cholesterol

Endocrine glands:

Cholesterol for hormones

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Protein Metabolism

Excess dietary protein yields > amino acids that:

Oxidized for energy

Deaminate, convert to:

pyruvic acid
Ketoacids in Krebs Cycle

Converted into fat for storage

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Amino Acid Oxidation

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Figure 24.15