Open Channel Flow

Monroe L. Weber-Shirk

School of Civil and

Environmental Engineering

Open Channel Flow

Liquid (water) flow with a ____
________
free surface
(interface between water and air)
relevant for

natural channels: rivers, streams

engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains

of interest to hydraulic engineers

location of free surface
velocity distribution
discharge - stage (______)
depth relationships
optimal channel design

Topics in Open Channel Flow

Uniform Flow

normal depth

Discharge-Depth relationships

Channel transitions
Control structures (sluice gates, weirs)
Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section

Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow

Hydraulic Jump
Gradually Varied Flow

Classification of flows
Surface profiles

Classification of Flows

Steady and Unsteady

Uniform, Gradually Varied, and Nonuniform (Spatial)

(Temporal)
Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with
time
Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change
within a given length of a channel
Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with
distance

Laminar and Turbulent

Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin
layers on top of each other
Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths

Momentum and Energy

Equations

Conservation of Energy
losses due to conversion of turbulence to heat
useful when energy losses are known or small
Contractions
____________
Must account for losses if applied over long distances
_______________________________________________
We need an equation for losses

Conservation of Momentum
losses due to shear at the boundaries
useful when energy losses are unknown
Expansion
____________

Open Channel Flow:

Discharge/Depth Relationship
Given a long channel of
constant slope and cross
section find the relationship
between discharge and depth
Assume

A
P

Steady Uniform Flow - ___ _____________

prismatic channel (no changeno
acceleration
in _________
with distance)

geometry
Use Energy and Momentum, Empirical
or Dimensional
Analysis?
What controls depth given a discharge?
Why doesnt the flow accelerate?

Force balance

Steady-Uniform Flow: Force

Balance
V 22

oP x
Shear force =________

2g

P
Wetted perimeter = __

Energy grade line

Hydraulic grade line

x sin
Gravitational force = A
________

Ax sin o Px 0
o
A
P

A
P

sin

a
d

W cos
Shear force

= R h Hydraulic radius

sin

sin

cos
Turbulence
Relationship between shear and velocity?
______________
W sin

Open Conduits:
Dimensional Analysis
Geometric

parameters

Hydraulic radius (Rh)

___________________
Channel length (l)
___________________

Rh

A
P

___________________
Roughness ()

Write

the functional relationship

l e

C p =f , , Re, Fr , M, W
Rh Rh

Does

Fr affect

V
Fr =
No!
shear? _________
yg

Pressure Coefficient for Open

Channel Flow?
Cp

2p

Ch
ll

CS f

V 2
2 ghl
V2

2 gS f l
= 2
V

Pressure Coefficient
(Energy Loss Coefficient)

Head loss coefficient

p hl

hl =S f l
Friction slope

Friction slope coefficient

Slope of EGL

Dimensional Analysis
l e

CS ff =f , , Re
Rh Rh

l e
CS ff = f , Re
Rh Rh

2 gS f l
CS ff = 2
V
Head loss length of channel

Rh
e

Rh
C
=l
CS ff
=f , Re=l (like f in Darcy-Weisbach) S ff
l
l
Rh

2 gS f l Rh
=l
2
V
l

2 gS f Rh
V=
l

2g
V=
S f Rh
l

Chezy equation (1768)

Introduced

by the French engineer Antoine

Chezy in 1768 while designing a canal for
the water-supply system of Paris
V =C Rh S f

compare

2g
V=
S f Rh
l

where C = Chezy coefficient

m
m
60
< C < 150
s
s
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of R (like f in Darcy-Weisbach)

Darcy-Weisbach equation (1840)

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
l V2
hl = f
d 2g
l V2
Sfl =f
4 Rh 2 g

l V2
hl = f
4 Rh 2 g
V2
S f Rh = f
8g

For rock-bedded streams

d 2

A 4 d
Rh

P
d
4
8g
V=
S f Rh
f

f =
2

Rh
1.2 +2.03log

d84
where d84 = rock size larger than
84% of the rocks in a random

Manning Equation (1891)

Most popular in U.S. for open channels
1 2/3 1/2
(MKS units!)
V R h So
1/3
n
T
/L
Dimensions of n?

1.49
n

Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

1/2
R 2/3
S
h
o

Q VA

1
n

ARh2 / 3 S o1 / 2

(English system)
Bottom slope
very sensitive to n

Values of Manning n
Lined Canals
Cement plaster
Untreated gunite
Wood, planed
Wood, unplaned
Concrete, trowled
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished
Rubble in cement
Asphalt, smooth
Asphalt, rough
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight
Gravel beds plus large boulders
Earth, straight, with some grass
Earth, winding, no vegetation
Earth , winding with vegetation

n 0.031d 1 / 6 d in
n 0.038d 1 / 6 dftin m

n
0.011
0.016
0.012
0.013
0.012
0.015
0.020
0.013
0.016
0.025
0.040
0.026
0.030
0.050

n=
f(surface
roughness,
channel
irregularity,
stage...)

d = median size of bed

material

Trapezoidal Channel

1
n

ARh2 / 3 S o1 / 2

Derive

P = f(y) and A = f(y) for a

trapezoidal channel
How would you obtain y = f(Q)?
A yb y 2 z

P 2 y 2 yz

P 2 y 1 z

2 1/ 2

2 1/ 2

Use Solver!

z
b

Flow in Round Conduits

=( r sin q ) ( r cos q )

r y

arccos
r
radians
A r 2 sin cos

T 2r sin
P 2 r

Maximum discharge
when y =0.938d
______

A
T

Open Channel Flow: Energy

Relations
velocity
head

V12

hL =S f Dx

2g

V22
2g

y1
y2

energy
grade
line
hydraulic
grade
waterline
surface

S o x
x

Bottom slope (So) not necessarily equal to surface slope (Sf)

Energy relationships
Pipe flow

p1
V12 p2
V22
+z1 +a 1
= +z2 +a 2
+hL
g
2g g
2g

From diagram on previous

slide...
V12
V22
y1 +So Dx + = y2 + +S f Dx
2g
2g

z - measured
from horizontal
datum

Turbulent flow (
1)
y - depth of flow

Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow

V12
V22
y1 + +So Dx = y2 + +S f Dx
2g
2g

Specific Energy
The

sum of the depth of flow and the

velocity head is the specific energy:
E y

V2
2g

E1 S o x E2 S f x

y - potential
energy
V2
- kinetic energy
2g

If channel bottom is horizontal and no

E1 E
head
loss
2
For a change in bottom elevation
E1 - Dy =E2

Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q
Q A1V1 A2V2
V2
Q2
E y
E y
where
2
2g
2gA A=f(y)
Consider rectangular channel (A=By) and
q is the discharge per unit width of
Q=qB
q2
channel
E y
y
2gy 2
A
B
3 roots (one is negative)

Specific Energy: Sluice Gate

10
9
y1 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
y2 1
0

E y

sluice gate q = 5.5 m2/s

EGL y2 = 0.45 m
V2 = 12.2 m/s
1
E2 = 8 m

q2
2gy 2

2
0

9 10

E1 E2
Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth
y1 and y2 arealternate
___________ depths (same specific
energy)
E

Specific Energy: Raise the Sluice

Gate
sluice gate

4
3

EGL

y1
2

y2 1

E1 E2

0
0

2
E

E y

q2

2gy 2
as sluice gate is raised y1 approaches y2 and E is
minimized: Maximum discharge for given energy.

Specific Energy: Step Up

Short, smooth step with rise y in channel

Given upstream depth and

discharge find y2

4
3

0
0

0
0

2
E

E1 =E2 +Dy

Increase step height?

yc

Critical Flow

3
2
1
0
0

Arbitrary crosssection
T

Find critical depth, yc

dE
0
dy
Q2
E y
A=f(y)
2gA2
Q 2 dA
dE
=1 =0
3
dy
gA dy
1

Q 2Tc
gAc3

QT
gA

Fr

gA

Fr

A
P

dA Tdy

V 2T

dy
dA

T=surface
width
A
=D
T

Hydraulic Depth

Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
1

Q 2Tc
gAc3

Q qT

q 2T 3
3
c

gy T

yc
g

gyc3

T Tc

Ac ycT

Ac

yc

q2
gyc3
1/ 3

Only for rectangular channels!

Given the depth we can find the flow!

Critical Flow Relationships:

Rectangular Channels
q

yc
g

Vc
yc g
yc

yc3

yc

V2
2g

because q Vc yc

inertial force
Froude number
gravity force

Vc2

E y

Vc2 yc2

1/ 3

Vc2

velocity head =0.5 (depth)

2g

E yc

Kinetic energy
Potential energy

yc
2

yc

2
3

Critical Flow

2
1
0
0

Characteristics
Unstable surface
Series of standing waves Difficult to measure depth

Occurrence
Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
Over falls
Changes in channel slope from mild to steep

Used for flow measurements

___________________________________________
Unique
relationship between depth and discharge

Broad-crested Weir
1/ 3

yc
g

gy

3
c

yc

Q =b gyc3

yc
Broad-crested
weir

Hard to measure yc

3
3/ 2

Q =b g

2
3

E 3/ 2
3/ 2

2
Q =Cd b g
H
3

E measured from top of weir

Cd corrects for using H
rather than E.

Broad-crested Weir: Example

Calculate

the flow and the depth upstream.

The channel is 3 m wide. Is H approximately
equal to E?
0.5

yc m
yc=0.3
Broad-crested
weir

How do you find flow?____________________

Critical flow relation
Energy equation
How do you find H?______________________
Solution

Hydraulic Jump
Used

for energy dissipation

Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
base

of spillway

We would

like to know depth of water

downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
Which equation, Energy or Momentum?

Hydraulic Jump!

Hydraulic Jump
M1 M 2 W Fp Fp Fss Conservation of
Momentum
hL
EGL
M 1 x M 2 x Fp Fp
1
1

1
1 xx

2
2

2
2 xx

y2

M 1 x V12 A1

y1

M 2 x V A2
2
2

QV1 QV2 p1 A1 p2 A2

A1

A2

gy1 A1
2

gy2 A2
2

gy
2

Q
A

Hydraulic Jump:
Conjugate Depths
For a rectangular channel make the following
substitutions
A By
Q By1V1
V1
Fr1 =
gy1

Froude number
y2

Much
algebra
valid for slopes <
0.02

y1
2

1 8 Fr12

Hydraulic Jump:
Energy Loss and Length
Energy Loss E1 E2 hL
E y

q2

algebra

hL

y2 y1 3

4 y1 y2
2gy 2
significant energy loss (to turbulence) in
jump

Length of jump
No general theoretical solution
Experiments show
L 6 y2 for 4 Fr1 20

Gradually Varied Flow

V12
V22
y1 + +So Dx = y2 + +S f Dx
2g
2g

V22 V12
So dx =( y2 - y1 ) + +S f dx

2 g 2 g

V2
dy +d +S f dx =S o dx
2 g

d V
dx
dx

Sf
So

dy dy 2 g
dy
dy
dy

Energy equation for

non-uniform, steady
flow
dy y2 y1
T
dy
y

A
P

Gradually Varied Flow

2Q 2 dA
Q 2T
d V 2
d Q 2

Fr 2

2 gA3 dy
gA3
dy 2 g
dy 2 gA2

Change in KE
Change in PE

dy d V 2
dx
dx

Sf
So
dy dy 2 g
dy
dy
1 Fr S f
2

dy
dx

dx
dy

1 Fr
2

So

dx

We are holding Q constant!

dy

So S f

dy
dx

So S f
1 Fr 2

Gradually Varied Flow

dy
dx

So S f
1 Fr 2

Governing equation
for gradually varied
flow

Gives change of water depth with distance along channel

Note
So

and Sf are positive when sloping down in

direction of flow
y is measured from channel bottom
dy/dx =0 means water depth is constant

yn is when So =S f

Surface Profiles

Mild slope (yn>yc)

Steep slope (yn<yc)

in a long channel unstable flow will occur

Horizontal slope (So=0)

in a long channel supercritical flow will occur

Critical slope (yn=yc)

in a long channel subcritical flow will occur

yn undefined

Adverse slope (So<0)

yn undefined

Note: These slopes are f(Q)!

Surface Profiles
Normal depth

Obstruction
Steep slope (S2)

Sluice gate
Steep slope

dx

So S f
1 Fr 2

S0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
+

yn
yc

dy

Hydraulic Jump

2
1
0
0

2
E

More Surface Profiles

dy

S0 - Sf 1 - Fr2 dy/dx
4

2 +

+
-

+
-

1 Fr 2

yc
yn
y

1 +

dx

So S f

2
1

3 -

0
0

2
E

Direct Step Method

y1

V12
2g

S o x y2

y1 y2
x

V12
2g

V22
2g

energy
equation

S f x

V22
2g

S f So

rectangular
channel
q
q
V1
V2
y1
y2

solve for x
prismatic channel
V2

Q
A2

V1

Q
A1

Direct Step Method

Friction Slope
Darcy-Weisbach

Manning
n 2V 2
S f = 4/3
Rh
n 2V 2
Sf =
2.22 Rh4 / 3

SI units
English
units

fV 2
Sf =
8 gRh

Direct Step
Limitation: channel must be _________
(so that
prismatic
velocity is a function of depth only and not a function
of x)
Method

identify type of profile (determines whether y is + or -)

choose y and thus yn+1
calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at y n and yn+1
calculate friction slope y n and yn+1
calculate average friction slope
calculate x

Direct Step Method

=y*b+y^2*z
y1 y2

=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b
=A/P

V12
2g

V22
2g

S f So

=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
y
A
P
Rh
V
Sf
E
Dx
x
0.900 1.799 4.223
0.426 0.139
0.00004 0.901
0
0.870 1.687 4.089
0.412 0.148
0.00005 0.871
0.498 0.5

J
K
L
M
T
Fr
bottom surface
3.799
0.065 0.000
0.900
3.679
0.070 0.030
0.900

Standard Step
Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second location
Step size (x) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth arent very large. Otherwise estimates of the
friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
Can solve in upstream or downstream direction

upstream for subcritical

downstream for supercritical

Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation

y1

V12
2g

S o x y2

V22
2g

S f x

What curves are available?

1.4
1.2

S1
bottom
surface
yc
yn

0.8

S3

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

20

15

10

distance upstream (m)

Is there a curve between yc and yn that

decreases in depth in the upstream direction?

elevation (m)

1.0

Wave Celerity
Vw
y

y+y

V+V

unsteady flow
F1

1
2

gy

Fr F1 F2

F2
1
2

V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y

steady flow

g y y 2

g y y y
2

F1
2

V-Vw

F2
V+V-Vw

Wave Celerity:
Momentum Conservation
Fr M 2 M 1

M 1 V Vw y
2

Per unit width

Fr y V Vw V V Vw V Vw
Fr y V Vw V

1
2
1
2

g y 2 y y 2 y V Vw V
g 2 yy y V Vw V

gy V Vw V

V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y

steady flow

Wave Celerity
y V Vw y y V V Vw

Mass conservation

yV yVw yV yV yV yV yVw yVw

V V Vw

y
y

gy V Vw V

gy V Vw
gy V Vw

y
Momentum

V-Vw V+V-Vw y+y

y
steady flow

y
c V Vw

gy

V
yg

Fr

V
c

Wave Propagation

Supercritical flow
c<V
waves only propagate downstream
water doesnt know what is happening downstream
_________
upstreamcontrol

Critical flow

c=V

Subcritical flow
c>V
waves propagate both upstream and downstream

Most Efficient Hydraulic

Sections

A section that gives maximum discharge for a

specified flow area

Minimum perimeter per area

No frictional losses on the free surface

Analogy to pipe flow
Best shapes

best
best with 2 sides
best with 3 sides

Why isnt the most efficient

hydraulic section the best design?
Minimum area = least excavation only if top
of channel is at grade
Cost of
liner
Complexity of form work
Erosion constraint - stability of side
walls

Open Channel Flow Discharge

Measurements

Discharge

Weir

broad crested
sharp crested
triangular

Venturi Flume
Spillways
Sluice gates

Velocity-Area-Integration

Discharge Measurements
Sharp-Crested
Triangular

Weir

Broad-Crested
Sluice

Weir

Weir

Gate

Explain the exponents of H!

2
Q = Cd b 2 gH 3/ 2
3

8
q 5/ 2

Q = Cd 2 g tan
H
2
15
3/ 2

2
Q =Cd b g
H
3
Q =Cd by g 2 gy1

Summary
All

the complications of pipe flow plus

additional parameter... _________________
free surface location
Various descriptions of head loss term
Chezy, Manning,

Importance

of Froude Number

decrease in E gives increase in y

Fr<1 decrease in E gives decrease in y
Fr=1 standing waves (also min E given Q)
y

Fr>1

Darcy-Weisbach
2
1
0

Methods

of calculating location of free surface

Broad-crested Weir: Solution

q

gyc3

q (9.8m / s ) 0.3m
2

0.5

q 0.5144m 2 / s
Q qL 1.54m 3 / s

yc E
3

q2
E1 @y1
2
2 gE1

yc m
yc=0.3
Broad-crested
weir
E2

yc 0.45m

2
E1 =E2 +Dy =0.95m
q2
E1 y1
2gy12
y1 0.935
H1 y1 0.5m 0.435

Sluice Gate
reservoir
2m

Sluice gate

10 cm
S = 0.005

Summary/Overview
Energy

losses

Dimensional Analysis
Empirical

8g
V=
S f Rh
f
1 2/3 1/2
V R h So
n

Energy Equation
Specific

V12
V22
y1 + +So Dx = y2 + +S f Dx
2g
2g

V2

q2
Q2
=y +
E y
2 =y +
2
2
gy
2
gA
2g

Energy
Two depths with same energy!
do we know which depth4
is the right one?
3
Is the path to the new depth
2
possible?
y

How

1
0
0

2
E

Specific Energy: Step Up

Short, smooth step with rise y in channel

Given upstream depth and

discharge find y2

4
3

0
0

0
0

2
E

E1 =E2 +Dy

Increase step height?

Critical Depth

When
When

energy for q

dE
dy

kinetic = potential!

Fr=1
q
T
Vc
=
=Q
Fr =
3
3
gA
yc g
gyc

Fr>1

= Supercritical
Fr<1 = Subcritical

yc

Vc2
2g

4
3
y

Minimum

2
1
0
0

2
E

What next?
Water

surface profiles

Rapidly

varied flow

A way

to move from supercritical to subcritical flow

(Hydraulic Jump)

Gradually
Surface

varied flow equations

profiles
Direct step
Standard step