FOOD CHEMISTRY

2 SKS
LELA LAILATUL KHUMAISAH
08132012794
Lailatul_khumaisah@yahoo.com
By: Dr. Steve Talcott

Recommended Text
Food Chemistry, 3rd Edition

ClassesFennema
Meet: Mon, ed.
Wed, and Fri
Owen
My

office is open at all times

www.ift.org

IFT Definition of Food Science

Food science is the discipline in which biology,
chemistry, physical sciences and engineering are
used to study:
The nature of foods
The causes of their deterioration
The principles underlying food processing.

Food Science: An Interdisciplinary

Field of Study
Microbiology
Biology

Chemistry

Food Science
Physics

Engineering

Nutrition

Food Chemistry
Basis

of food science

Water
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Micronutrients
Phytochemicals
Others

Food Chemistry Examples

Lipids in Peanuts
Opened

jar peanut butter: chemical reaction

in the oil phase
Oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acids in
the peanut oil results in production of a
rancid odor.
Peanut butter represents a special food
system called an emulsion
H
C
H

oxygen

H
C

H
C

H
C
H

Hydrocarbon chain

Solutions and Emulsions

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures in which solute

particles are small enough to dissolve within solvent
Solute examples: salt, sugar, vitamin C, other small solid particles
Solute liquid examples: water, ethanol; gas examples: CO 2
Droplets of dispersed phase
within the continuous phase

Examples of colloids

MILK

Dispersions (colloidal dispersions) are mixtures in which

solutes do not dissolve (too large)
milk protein (casein)
egg white protein (albumen)
gelatin protein
pectin polysaccharide
Ca and Mg (minerals)

What is an emulsion?
Mixture of two immiscible liquids
oil

Surface tension acts to keep the liquids

from mixing

H2 O

Result: oil sits on

top of the water phase
Stable food emulsions = addition of emulsifiers
lecithin, sucrose esters, MAG, DAG, etc

O/W
emulsion

milk
ice cream
mayo

W/O
emulsion

Margarine
butter

Common Chemical Bonds in Foods

Covalent

Ionic

Sharing 1 or more pairs of electrons

Very strong bonds, not easily broken in foods
C-C or C=C bonds
Filling of orbitals through the transfer of electrons
Cations (+) and Anions (-); Na+ + Cl- => NaCl

Hydrogen

Compounds containing O or N with bound hydrogen

Very weak bonds; C-H or N-H

Functional Groups in Foods

The Basics of Food Chemistry

SOME FOOD MOLECULES

important in food chemistry
HOH
Na H CO3

CH3 COOH
C6H12O6

NH2 CH2 - COOH

O=C=O
NaCl

CH3 (CH2)n - COOH

SOME FOOD MOLECULES

important in food chemistry
WATER
sodium bicarbonate

The amino acid

glycine

acetic acid
glucose

carbon dioxide

sodium chloride

general
structure of a
fatty acid

A Few Food Functional Groups:

ACID GROUP: carboxylic acid COOH
acids donate (lose) protons

COOH COO(-) + H(+)

This means acids form ions (charged species)
anion has (-) charge
cation has (+) charge

Vinegar contains acetic acid CH3COOH

Tartaric acid found in grapes is a di-carboxylic acid
what does this mean?
Citric acid is tri-carboxylic acid.

AMINO GROUP: NH2

Derived from ammonia (NH3)

Amines are basic means they gain protons

methyl amine: CH3 NH2

trimethylamine is found in fish, and is responsible for

fishy odor
CH3 CH COOH
NH2

Alanine, an amino acid

Alcohol group - OH hydroxyl group

Methyl alcohol = methanol: CH3- OH
Ethanol C2H5OH is produced during the fermentation
of sugars; it is water-soluble and is called grain alcohol
because it is obtained from corn, wheat, rice, barley,
and fruits.
Yeasts use sugars for food they ferment
simple carbohydrates and produce ethanol and CO2:
STARCH hydrolysis C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
Glucose

Ethanol

Carbon
Dioxide

Other food molecules that contain OH groups: cholesterol (a lipid),

tocopherol (a vitamin), retinol (a vitamin), & calciferol (a vitamin)

Aldehyde group - CHO

There is actually a double bond between two atoms
in this group:
formaldehyde HCHO:

HCH
O

Aldehydes can be formed from lipid oxidation, and

generally have very low sensory thresholds.
For example, fresh pumpkin has the smell of
acetaldehyde; fresh cut grass the small of hexenal.

Covalent: Sharing of electrons, strong bonds, C-C or C=C bonds

Ionic: Transfer of electrons, NaCl
Hydrogen: Weak bonds with O or N with bound hydrogen
There are 3 other important bonds in foods:

(1) An ester bond (linkage) in lipids

(2) A peptide bond (linkage) in proteins
(3) A glycosidic bond (linkage) in sugars

An ester bond (linkage) in lipids:

In food fats, fatty acids are attached to glycerol molecules, through
what is called an ester linkage

O
Glycerol

Ester linkage

fatty acid

Glycerol is a small molecule, containing only 3 carbons

But, to each carbon atom of glycerol, one fatty acid
can attach, via an ester bond.
A mono-, di-, or tri-esterified fatty acid to a glycerol is:
A MONOACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that
has ONE fatty acid attached (esterified) to glycerol.
A DIACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that
has TWO fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
A TRIACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that
has THREE fatty acids esterified to glycerol.

Ester

HCOH

H C O C - (CH2)n CH3

HCOH
HCOH
Fatty acid chain

HCOH
HCOH
H
H

a monoglyceride

Glycerol

What do peptide bonds (linkages) in proteins look like?

In food proteins, or polypeptides, individual amino acids are
attached to each other through what is called a peptide linkage

Amino acid

Peptide linkage

Amino acid. . . repeat

AMINO ACIDS contain both the amino (NH2)

and the acid (COOH) group in their structure.
In the formation of a peptide bond, one of the amino
acids loses one H atom, and the other loses O and H.

NH2 C C - O H ------------- NH2 C C - O H

R is any
Side chain

R
Acid group of the amino acid

R
Amino group

The formation of peptide bond

N-C-C-N

A glycosidic linkage in sugars connects

sugar units into larger structures

Glycosidic linkage

glucose
O

glucose

MALTOSE, a disaccharide composed of 2 glucose units

Structures of sugar disaccharides

Alpha 1,4 glycosidic
bond

Beta 1,4 glycosidic

bond

Alpha 1,4 glycosidic

bond

Polymeric Linkages
CH 2 OH
O
O OH
OH

CH 2 OH
O
O OH
OH

Amylose

Cellulose

Alpha 1,4 Linkage

Digestible

Beta 1,4 Linkage

Indigestible

Organic Acids in Foods

Application of functional groups

Acids in Foods
Organic acids
Citric (lemons), Malic (apples), Tartaric
(grapes), Lactic (yogurt), Acetic (vinegar)
Food acids come in many forms, however:
Proteins

are made of amino acids

Fats are made from fatty acids
Fruits and vegetables contain phenolic acids
Organic

acids are characterized by carboxylic

acid group (R-COOH); not present in
mineral acids such as HCl and H3PO4

Chemical
Structures
of
Common
Organic
Acids

Acids in Foods
Add

flavor, tartness
Aid in food preservation by lowering pH
Acids donate protons (H+) when dissociated
Strong acids have a lot of dissociated ions
Weak acids have a small dissociation constant
Acids dissociate based on pH
As the pH increases, acid will dissociate
pKa is the pH equilibrium between assoc/dissoc

Titration Curve for Acetic Acid

Acids in Foods
Weak

acids are commonly added to foods

Citric acid is the most common
When we eat a food containing citric acid, the
higher pH of our mouth (pH 7) will dissociate
the acid, and giving a characteristics sour flavor
pH and Titratable Acidity
pH measures the amount of dissociated ions
TA measures total acidity (assoc and dissoc)
The type of food process is largely based on pH

They also have other roles in food

Control pH
Preserve food (pH 4.6 is a critical value)
Provide leavening (chemical leavening)
Aid in gel formation (i.e. pectin gels)
Help prevent non-enzymatic browning
Help prevent enzymatic browning
Synergists for antioxidants (for some, low pH is good)
Chelate metal ions (i.e. citric acid)
Enhance flavor (balance sweetness)

Acids in Foods
In

product development you can use one

acid or a combinations of acids

-flavor
-functionality
-

synergy
- naturally occurring blends
- food additives

Acidity is important chemically

-Denaturation

and precipitation of proteins

-Modify

carbohydrates and hydrolysis of

complex sugars

-Hydrolysis
Generally

Inversion

of fatty acids from TAGs

under alkaline conditions

of sugars (sucrose to glu + fru)

Chemical Reactions in Foods

(1) Enzymatic
(2) Non-enzymatic
Generically applied to:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins

CARBOHYDRATE
chemical reactions:
Enzymatic

browning
Non-enzymatic browning
Hydrolysis
Fermentation
Oxidation/reduction
Starch gelatinization

PROTEIN
chemical reactions:
Buffering
Non-enzymatic
Hydrolysis
Condensation
Oxidation
Denaturation
Coagulation

browning

LIPID
chemical reactions
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Hydrogenation

Chemical Bonds to Chemical Rxns

Chemical Reactions in Foods

Enzymatic
Enzymes

are proteins that occur in every living system

Enzymes can have beneficial and detrimental effects
Bacterial fermentations in cheese, pickles, yogurt
Adverse color, texture, flavor, and odor

High

degree of specificity (Enzyme Substrate)

Non-enzymatic
Those

reactions that do not require enzymes

Addition, redox, condensation, hydrolysis

The Active Site of the ES Complex

Enzymereactions
Reactions
Enzymatic
can

occur from enzymes

naturally present in a food
Or as part of food processing, enzymes are
added to foods to enable a desired effect
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions (good
or bad) and must be controlled by
monitoring time and temperature.
Typically we think of enzymes as breaking
apart lipids, proteins, or carbs; but there
are several enzyme categories
sucrose

sucrase
invertase

glucose + fructose

Enzyme Class Characterizations

1.

Oxidoreductase
Oxidation/reduction reactions

2.

Transferase
Transfer of one molecule to another (i.e. functional groups)

3.

Hydrolase
Catalyze bond breaking using water (ie. protease, lipase)

4.

Lyase
Catalyze the formation of double bonds, often in dehydration
reactions, during bond breaking

5.

Isomerase
Catalyze intramolecular rearrangement of molecules

6.

Ligase
Catalyze covalent attachment of two substrate molecules

Common Enzyme Reactions

(some reactions can also occur without enzymes)

HYDROLYSIS
Food molecules split into smaller products, due to the
action of enzymes, or other catalysts (heat, acid) in the
presence of water
OXIDATION / REDUCTION:
Reactions that cause changes in a foods chemical
structures through the addition or removal of an
electron (hydrogen).

Oxidation is the removal of an electron

Reduction is the addition of an electron

Oxidation vs Oxidized

The removal of an electron is oxidation (redox reactions).

When a food system is oxidized, oxygen is added to an active
binding site
For example, the result of lipid oxidation is that the lipid may
become oxidized.
In the food industry, we common speak of oxidizing agents
versus reducing agents. Both are used in foods.
Reducing agents are compounds that can donate an electron in the
event of an oxidation reaction.

L-ascorbic acid is an excellent reducing agent as are most antioxidants

Oxidizing agents induce the removal of electrons

Benzoyl peroxide is commonly added to bleached wheat flour

Lets put Enzymes and Chemical

Reactions into Perspective

Enzymes

Living organisms must be able to carry out chemical reactions

which are thermodynamically very unfavorable

Break and/or form covalent bonds

Alter large structures
Effect three dimensional structure changes
Regulate gene expression

They

A common biological reaction can take place without

enzyme catalysis

do so through enzyme catalysis

but will take 750,000,000 years

With an enzyme.it takes ~22 milliseconds

Even improvement of a factor of 1,000 would be good

Only 750,000 years

Living system would be impossible

Effect of Enzymes
A bag

of sugar can be stored for years with very little

conversion to CO2 and H2O
This conversion is basic to life, for energy
When consumed, it is converted to chemical energy
very fast
Both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions
Enzymes

proteins:

are highly specialized class of

Specialized

to perform specific chemical reactions

Specialized to work in specific environments

Enzymes

Food quality can be changed due to the activity of

enzymes during storage or processing
Enzymes can also be used as analytical indicators to
follow those changes
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions can either enhance or
deteriorate food quality
Changes in color, texture, sensory properties

Enzyme Applications in the Food Industry

Carbohydrases: making corn syrup from starch
Proteases: Meat tenderizers
Lipases: Flavor production in chocolate and cheese
Pectinases
Glucose

oxidase
Flavor enzymes
Lipoxygenase
Polyphenol oxidase
Rennin (chymosin)

Water Content of Foods

Tomatoes, lettuce -- 95%
Apple juice, milk -- 87%
Potato -- 78%
H
Meats -- 65-70%
O
Bread -- 35%
H
Honey -- 20%
Rice, wheat flour -- 12%
Shortening -- 0%

Water Works

Water must be available in foods for the action of

both chemical and enzymatic reactions.

The available water represents the degree to which

water in a food is free for:

Chemical reactions
Enzymatic reactions
Microbial growth
Quality characteristics

Related to a simple loss of moisture

Related to gel breakdown
Food texture (gain or loss)

Water Works
Very important (#1 ingredient in many foods)
Structure

Polar nature, hydrogen bonding

Can occur in many forms (S,L,V)

Acts as a dispersing medium or solvent

Solubility
Hydration

Emulsions
Gels
Colloids

Water Works
The amount of free water, available for these reactions
and changes is represented by Water Activity.
As the percentage of water in a food is bound changing
from its free state, the water activity decreases
Water Activity is represented by the abbreviation: Aw
Aw = P/ Po

P = Vapor pressure of a food

Po = Vapor pressure of pure water (1.0)

Vapor pressure can be represented as equilibrium RH

Is based on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0
Any food substance added to water will lower water
activity.so, all foods have a water activity less than 1.0

Water
Free vs. bound
Water activity (Aw)
Measured

by vapor pressure of food

This value is directly correlated to the growth of
microorganisms and the chemical reactions

3 Forms of Water

Free water (capillary water or Type III)

Water that can be easily removed from a food
Water that is responsible for the humidity of a food
Water from which water activity is measured

Bound water (adsorbed or Type II)

Water that is tied up by the presense of soluble solids
Salts, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, emsulifiers, etc.

Water of hydration (Structured or Type I)

Water held in hydrated chemicals
Na2SO4 . 10H2O

Water Sorption Isotherm

Type II
Absorbed

re
u
t
is
o
M

te
n
o

Water Activity

Type III
Free

Iso
t
n

rm
e
th

Moisture Content

Type I
Hydration

Water Sorption Isotherm

Type II
Absorbed

Li

ox
d
pi

n
o
i
at
id

re
u
t
is
o
M

te
n
o

Type III
Free

Iso
t
n

rm
e
th

ea
m
zy
n
E

Water Activity

ct

B
NE
ty
ivi

s
d
l
o
M

ast
e
Y
MO

Moisture Content

Relative Reactivity

Type I
Hydration

Moisture sorption isotherm (MSI)

How to Use the Isotherm

Moisture sorption isotherms
Shows the relationship between water activity and moisture at a
given temperature (the two are NOT equivalent)

Represent moisture content at equilibrium for each water activity

Allow for predictions in changes of moisture content and its

potential effect on water activity

If the temperature is altered, then the relationships can not be

compared equivalently

Each reaction is governed by its own temperature-dependence

Acid hydrolysis reactions are faster at high temperatures

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions cease to function at high temperatures

Influences on Water Activity

Foods will naturally equilibrate to a point of equilibrium with its environment

Therefore, foods can adsorb or desorb water from the environment
Desorption is when a wet food is placed in a dry environment

Analogous to dehydration; but not the same

Desorption implies that the food is attempting to move into equilibrium (ie. in a
package)
Dehydration is the permanent loss of water from a food
In both cases, the Aw decreases

Desorption is generally a slow process, with moisture gradually decreasing

until it is in equilibrium with its environment.

Adsorption is when a dry food is placed in a wet environment

As foods gain moisture, the Aw increases
The term hygroscopic is used to describe foods or chemicals that absorb
moisture
A real problem in the food industry (lumping, clumping, increases rxn rates)

Water Activity in Practice

Bacterial

growth and rapid deterioration

High

water activity in meat, milk, eggs,

fruits/veggies
1.0-0.9
Yeast

and mold spoilage

Intermediate

and cheese
0.75-0.9
Analogous

water activity foods such as bread

to a pH < 4.6, an Aw < 0.6 has the

same preservation effect

Aw in Low Moisture Foods

Water activity and its relationship with moisture content
help to predict and control the shelf life of foods.
Generally speaking, the growth of most bacteria is
inhibited at water activities lower than 0.9 and yeast
and mold growth prevented between 0.80 and 0.88.
Aw also controls physiochemical reactions.
Water activity plays an important role in the
dehydration process. Knowledge of absorption and
desorption behavior is useful for designing drying
processes for foods.

How to Control water

The ratio of free to bound water has to be altered

You can either remove water (dehydration or
concentration)

Or you can convert the free water to bound water

Can change the physical nature of the food

Alter is color, texture, and/or flavor
Addition of sugars, salts, or other water-soluble agents

You can freeze the food

This immobilizes the water (and lowers the Aw)

However, not all foods can be or should be frozen
Frozen foods will eventually thaw, and the problem persists

Water
Water contains intramolecular polar covalent bonds
Effects

Boiling point
Freezing point
Vapor pressure

Easy formation of H bonds with food molecules

Properties of Water
The

triple point is the temperature and pressure at

which three phases (liquid, ice, and vapor)
coexist at equilibrium, and will transform phases
small changes in temperature or pressure.
The dashed line is the vapor pressure of
supercooled liquid water.

Chemical and functional properties of water

Solvation,

dispersion, hydration
Water activity and moisture
Water as a component of emulsions
Water and heat transfer
Water as an ingredient

Freezing Foods
Controlling Water

Freezing
Greatly influenced the way we eat
Freezing curves
Water Freezes Pure
Frozen Foods
Must be super-cooled to below 0C
Crystal nucleation begins
Temperature rises to 0C as ice forms

Refrigerated and Frozen Foods

The Market
Meals and entrees
Meat, poultry, fish
Dairy, beverage
Fruits and veggies
Bakery products
Snacks, appetizers,
and side dishes

Annual Sales ($Billion)

$83.7
69.8
21.9
11.6
16.1
15.8

Freezing Foods
Freezing Point
20
60
Super-cooling
Latent heat of
Crystallization

70

90

95

98

99

99.9

Freezing
Freezing Food
Require lower temp. to continue freezing
Last portion of water is very hard to freeze
Unfrozen water is a problem
***As long as unfrozen water is present in a
food, the temperature will remain near 0C
due to the latent heat of crystallization.

Freezing
Quality changes during freezing
Concentration effect = small amount of
unfrozen water
Excess solutes may precipitate
Proteins may denature
pH may decrease
Gases may concentrate (i.e. oxygen)

Freezing
Quality changes during freezing
Damage from ice crystals
Puncture

Large

cell membranes

crystals cause more problems

Fast freezing much more desirable
Less concentration effect
Smaller ice crystals

Freezing
Final storage temperature
-18C is standard
Safe microbiologically
Limits enzyme activity
Non-enzymatic changes are slow
Can maintain fairly easily
Good overall shelf-life

Freezing
Intermittent thawing
Partial thawing, then refreezing
Complete thawing does not have to occur
Get concentration effect
Get larger ice crystals as water re-freezes

Freezing
Factors determining freezing rate:
Food composition
Fat and air have low thermal conductivity,
slow down freezing
This is a buffering effect.

Freezing
Ways to speed up freezing
Thinner foods freeze faster
Greater air velocity
More intimate contact with coolant
Use refrigerant with greater heat capacity

High Pressure Effects

Freezing

is regarded as one of the best methods

for long term food preservation.
The benefits of this technique are primarily from
low temperatures rather than ice formation.

Freezing Foods

Freezing can be damaging to food systems due to

To reduce the chemical and mechanical damage to food systems during

freezing, technologies have been developed to freeze foods faster or under
high pressures. Benefits include:

Formation of ice crystals (especially large ice crystals)

Concentration of soluble solids
Concentration of gasses (ie. oxygen)
Intermittent thawing (poor temperature control)

Higher density ice (less space between crystals from air or solids)
Increased rate of freezing
Smaller ice crystal formation
Uniform crystal formation

With high-pressure freezing the increasing pressure decreases the temperature

needed to freeze water, thus the ice nucleation rate increases.
HP freezing generally involves cooling an unfrozen sample to -21C under high
pressures (300MPa) causing ice formation to occur.
Another method involves pressure shift freezing where the food is cooled
under high pressures without causing freezing. Once the pressure is released,
the sample freezes instantly.

The Phase diagram shows us the process which takes place as water is
added to a lipid system. It can be seen that the lipid phase transition
temperature falls with increasing water content. So,below that
particular temperature the chains are crystalline and when the
temperature is above it they are melted in a fluid condition. Note: The
phosphatidyl cholines bind a significant amount of water. This is said
to be 'bound' or 'unfreezable' water.

Water content in a food system influences the rate of chemical

reactions by shifting reaction equilibria via LeChatelier's
principle or by the more subtle effect of changing the pH.
Essentially, as water is removed those solutes involved in
degradation reactions are concentrated. These solutes are
responsible for the pH of the system.
Back in 1923, two researchers, Corran and Lewis, showed that
the activity of the hydronium ions (-OH) increased with
increasing sucrose concentration.
Basically the sucrose bound the water resulting in a decrease in
pH, or an increase in the acidity of a given solution.
Recent research has demonstrated that reaction rate of amino
acid degradation reactions are pH dependent.

Dehydration and Concentration

of Foods
Controlling Water

Dehydration and Concentration

Factors affecting drying rates
Surface area
Temperature
Air velocity
Humidity
Pressure (vacuum)
Solute concentration
Amount of free and bound water

Drying Curve of a Food

Water that is easily removed

Water that is difficult to remove

Dehydration and Concentration

Quality changes
Browning
Enzymes - sulfite will prevent
Carmelization - lower temps. will limit
Maillard reaction - reaction of sugars and
amino acids - lower temps will limit
Acrylamide???

Flavor changes

Carbohydrates in Foods
A general overview

KARBOHIDRAT DALAM BAHAN

MAKANAN
Karbohidrat

banyak terdapat dalam bahan

nabati, baik berupa gula sederhana, heksosa,
pentosa, maupun karbohidrat dengan berat
molekul yang tinggi seperti pati, pektin,
selulosa, dan lignin.
Selulosa berperan sebagai penyusun dinding
sel tanaman
Buah-buahan mengandung monosakarida
seperti glukosa dan fruktosa.

KARBOHIDRAT
Disakarida

seperti gula tebu (sukrosa atau

sakarosa) banyak terkandung dalam batang
tebu
Di dalam air susu terdapat laktosa
Beberapa oligosakarida banyak terdapat
dalam sirup pati, roti dan bir.
Berbagai polisakarida seperti pati banyak
terdapat umbi-umbian dan serealia

KARBOHIDRAT
Selama

proses pematangan, kandungan pati

dalam buah-buahan berubah menjadi gulagula pereduksi yang akan menimbulkan rasa
manis.
Sumber karbohidrat utama bagi kita adalah
serealia dan umbi-umbian.
Pada hasil ternak, khususnya daging,
karbohidrat terdapat dalam bentuk glikogen
yang disimpan dalam jaringan otot dan
dalam hati.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain many

hydroxyl groups.
The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde
(these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone
(polyhydroxyketones).
All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
An oligosaccharide is anywhere from about two to ten
monosaccharide units, linked by glycosidic bonds.
Polysaccharides are much larger, containing hundreds of
monosaccharide units.
The presence of the hydroxyl groups (OH) allows
carbohydrates to interact with the aqueous environment and to
participate in hydrogen bonding, both within and between chains.

CARBOHYDRATES

SUGARS contain 2 important and very reactive

Functional groups:

-OH (hydroxyl group)

Important for solubility and sweetness

-C=O (carbonyl group)

Important for reducing ability and Maillard browning

GLUCOSE is an ALDOSE sugar with one C atom

external to the 6-membered ring

FRUCTOSE is a KETOSE hexose with two carbon

atoms external to the 6-membered ring

CARBOHYDRATES
Classifications for the main categories of food carbohydrates are
based on their degree of polymerization.

Types of Carbohydrates

JENIS KARBOHIDRAT
Pada

umumnya karbohidrat dapat

dikelompokkan menjadi monosakarida,
oligosakarida, serta polisakarida. Monosakarida
merupakan suatu molekul yang dapat terdiri dari
lima atau enam atom C, sedangkan oligosakarida
merupakan polimer dari 2-10 monosakarida,
pada pada umumnya polisakarida merupakan
polimer yang terdiri lebih dari 10 monomer
monosakarida.

Monosakarida
Tata nama monosakarida tergantung dari gugus
fungsional yang dimiliki dan letak gugus
hidroksilnya.
Monosakarida yang mengandung satu gugus
aldehid disebut aldosa, ketosa mempunyai satu
gugus keton.
Monosakarida dengan enam atam C disebut
heksosa, misalnya glukosa, fruktosa, dan
galaktosa.
Monosakarida yang mempunyai lima atom C
disebut pentosa misalnya xilosa, arabinosa, dan
ribosa.

Monosakarida

Monosakarida

Monosaccharides
The

monosaccharides commonly found in

foods are classified according to the
number of carbons they contain in their
backbone structures.
The major food monosaccharides contain
six carbon atoms.
Carbohydrate Classifications
Hexose = six-carbon sugars
Glucose, Galactose, Fructose

Fischer Projection of a-D-Glucose

Haworth Projection of a-D-Glucose

Chair form of a-D-Glucose

Disaccharides
Bonds between sugar units are termed glycosidic bonds,
and the resultant molecules are glycosides.
The linkage of two monosaccharides to form
disaccharides involves a glycosidic bond. The important
food disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Sucrose: prevalent in sugar cane and sugar beets, is composed

of glucose and fructose through an -(1,2) glycosidic bond.

Lactose:
is found exclusively in the milk of mammals and consists of
galactose and glucose in a -(1,4) glycosidic bond.

Maltose:
Is the major degradation product of starch, and is composed
of 2 glucose monomers in an -(1,4) glycosidic bond.

Oligosakarida
Oligosakarida

adalah polimer dengan

derajat polimerasasi 2 sampai 10 dan
biasanya bersifat larut dalam air.
Oligosakarida yang terdiri dari dua molekul
disebut disakarida, bila tiga molekul disebut
triosa, bila sukrosa terdiri dari molekul
glukosa dan fruktosa, laktosa terdiri dari
molekul glukosa dan galaktosa.

IKATAN GLIKOSIDIK
Ikatan

antara dua molekul monosakarida

disebut ikatan glikosidik. Ikatan ini terbentuk
antara gugus hidroksil dari atom C nomor
satu yang juga disebut karbon anomerik
dengan gugus hidroksil dan atom C pada
molekul gula yang lain.
Ikatan glikosidik biasanya terjadi antara atom
C no. 1 dengan atom C no. 4 dengan
melepaskan 1 mol air.

GULA PEREDUKDI
Ada tidaknya sifat pereduksi dari suatu molekul
gula ditentukan oleh ada tidaknya gugus hidroksil
(OH) bebas yang reaktif.
Sukrosa tidak mempunyai gugus OH bebas yang
reaktif karena keduanya sudah saling terikat,
sedangkan laktosa mempunyai OH bebas pada
atom C no. 1 pada gugus glukosanya. Karena itu,
laktosa bersifat pereduksi sedangkan sukrosa
bersifat non pereduksi.

OLIGOSAKARIDA
Sukrosa adalah oligosakarida yang berperan
penting dalam pengolahan makanan dan banyak
terdapat pada tebu, bit, siwalan, dan kelapa kopyor.
Pada pembuatan sirup, gula pasir (sukrosa)
dilarutkan dalam air dan dipanaskan, sebagian
sukrosa akan terurai menjadi glukosa dan fruktosa,
yang disebut gula invert.
Gula invert tidak dapat berbentuk kristal karena
kelarutan fruktosa dan glukosa sangat besar.

Oligosakarida dapat diperoleh dari hasil hidrolisis

polisakarida dengan bantuan enzim tertentu atau
hidrolisis dengan asam.
Pati dapat dihidrolisisi dengan enzim amilase
menghasilkan maltosa, maltotriosa, dan isomaltosa.
Bila pati dihidrolisis dengan enzim transglukosidase
akan dihasilkan suatu oligosakarida dengan derajat
polimerisasi yang lebih besar. Senyawa ini disebut
dekstrin yang sangat larut dalam air dan dapat
mengikat zat-zat hidrofobik sehingga dipergunakan
sebagai food additive untuk memperbaiki tekstur
bahan makanan.

Polisakarida
Polisakarida dalam bahan makanan berfungsi sebagai
penguat tekstur (selulosa, hemiselulosa, pati, dan
lignin) dan sebagai sumber energi (pati, dektrin,
glikogen, dan fruktan). Polisakarida penguat tekstur ini
tidak dapat dicerna tubuh, tetapi merupakan serat-serat
(dietary fiber) yang dapat menstimulasi enzim-enzim
pencernaan.
Polisakarida merupakan polimer molekul-molekul
monosakarida yang dapat berantai lurus atau
bercabang dan dapat dihidrolisis dengan enzim-enzim
tertentu.

Pati
Pati merupakan homopolimer glukosa dengan
ikatan alfa-glikosidik.
Berbagai macam pati tidak sama sifatnya,
tergantung dari panjang rantai C-nya, serta apakah
lurus atau bercabang rantai molekulnya.
Pati terdiri dari dua fraksi yang dapat dipisahkan
dengan air panas.
Fraksi terlarut disebut amilosa dan fraksi tidak
terlarut disebut amilopektin. Amilosa mempunyai
struktur lurus sedang amilopektin mempunyai
cabang.

Gelatinisasi

Pati dalam jaringan tanaman mempunyai bentuk granula yang

berbeda-beda. Dengan mikroskop jenis pati dapat dibedakan
karena mempunyai bentuk, ukuran, dan letak hilum yang unik.
Bila pati mentah dimasukkan ke dalam air dingin, granula
patinya akan menyerap air dan membengkak. Peningkatan
volume granula pati yang terjadi di dalam air pada suhu 55 0C
65 0C merupakan pembekakan yang sesungguhnya, dan
setelah pembengkakan ini granula pati dapat kembali ke
kondisi semula.
Granula pati dapat dibuat membengkak luar biasa dan bersifat
tidak dapat kembali lagi pada kondisi semula. Perubahan
tersebut dinamakan gelatinisasi.

Suhu pada saat granula pati pecah disebut suhu

gelatinisasi yang dapat dilakukan dengan penambahan
air panas.
Pati yang telah mengalami gelatinisasi dapat
dikeringkan, tetapi molekul-molekul tersebut tidak
dapat kembali lagi ke sifat-sifat semula. Bahan yang
telah kering tersebut masih mampu menyerap air
dalam jumlah yang cukup besar. Sifat inilah yang
digunakan agar instant rice dan instant pudding dapat
menyerap air dengan mudah, yaitu dengan
menggunakan pati yang telah mengalami gelatinisasi.

Selulosa
Selulosa merupakan serat-serat panjang yang bersamasama hemiselulosa, pektin, dan protein membentuk
struktur jaringan yang memperkuat dinding sel
tanaman.
Turunan selulosa yang dikenal dengan carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC) sering dipakai dalam industri
makanan untuk mendapatkan tekstur yang baik.
Misalnya pada pembuatan es krim, pemakaian CMC
akan memperbaiki tekstur dan kristal laktosa yang
terbentuk akan lebih halus.

Pektin

Pektin secara umum terdapat dalam dinding sel primer

tanaman, khususnya di sela-sela antara selulosa dan
hemiselulosa. Senyawa pektin berfungsi sebagai perekat
antara dinding sel satu dengan yang lain.
Pada umumnya senyawa pektin dapat diklasifikasi menjadi
tiga kelompok senyawa yaitu asam pektat, asam pektinat
(pektin), dan protopektin.
Kandungan pektin dalam tanaman sangat bervariasi baik
berdasarkan jenis tanamannya maupun bagian-bagian
jaringannya.
Komposisi kandungan protopektin, pektin, dan asam pektat
di dalam buah sangat bervariasi tergantung pada derajat
pematangan buah.

 Pada

umumnya protopektin yang tidak dapat

larut itu terdapat dalam jaringan tanaman
yang belum matang.
Potensi pembentukan jeli dari pektin menjadi
berkurang dalam buah yang terlalu matang.
Buah-buahan yang dapat digunakan untuk
membuat jeli adalah jambu biji, apel, lemon,
plum, jeruk, serta anggur.

Glikogen
Glikogen

merupakan pati hewan, banyak

terdapat pada hati dan otot bersifat larut dalam
air, serta bila bereaksi dengan iodin akan
berwarna merah.
Glikogen juga telah berhasil diisolasi dari
benih jagung (sweet corn).
Glikogen disimpan dalam hati hewan sebagai
cadangan energi yang sewaktu-waktu dapat
diubah menjadi glukosa.

Polisakarida Lain
Gum Arabik

yang dihasilkan dari batang pohon

akasia
Agar-agar didapatkan dari ganggang merah.
Asam alginat atau Na-alginat dihasilkan dari
suatu ganggang laut yang besar.
Karagenan didapat dengan mengekstraksi
lumut Irlandia dengan air panas. Dipergunakan
sebagai stabilizer pada industri coklat dan hasil
produksi susu.

Polysaccharides
Most of the carbohydrates found in nature occur in the
form of high molecular weight polymers called
polysaccharides.
The monomeric building blocks used to generate
polysaccharides can be varied; in all cases, however,
the predominant monosaccharide found in
polysaccharides is D-glucose.
When polysaccharides are composed of a single
monosaccharide building block, they are termed
homopolysaccharides.

Starch
Starch

is the major form of stored carbohydrate

in plant cells.
Its structure is identical to glycogen, except for
a much lower degree of branching (about every
20-30 residues).
Unbranched starch is called amylose
Branched starch is called amylopectin.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

Reducing sugars
Browning reactions (caramelization and Maillard)
Sweetness and flavors
Crystallization
Humectancy
Inversion
Oxidation and reduction
Texturizing
Viscosity
Gelling (gums, pectins, other hydrocolloids)
Gelatinization (Starch)

Invert sugar

Invert sugar is a liquid carbohydrate sweetener in which

all or a portion of the sucrose present has been inverted:

The sucrose molecule is split and converts to an equimolar

mixture of glucose and fructose.

Invert sugars have properties from sucrose; they help

baked goods retain moisture, and prolong shelf-life.
Candy manufacturers use invert sugar to control
graining.
Invert sugar is different from high fructose sweeteners

SUCROSE + invertase enzyme glucose + fructose

Sucrose

Where does sucrose come from?

Invert sugar

Invert sugar is a liquid carbohydrate sweetener in which

all or a portion of the sucrose present has been inverted:

The sucrose molecule is split and converts to an equimolar

mixture of glucose and fructose.

Invert sugars have properties from sucrose; they help

baked goods retain moisture, and prolong shelf-life.
Candy manufacturers use invert sugar to control
graining.
Invert sugar is different from high fructose sweeteners

SUCROSE + invertase enzyme glucose + fructose

Corn syrups
Corn syrups are manufactured by treating corn starch
with acids or enzymes.
Corn syrups, used extensively by the food industry and
in the home kitchen, contain primarily glucose
(dextrose) but other sugars as well.
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is made by treating
dextrose-rich corn syrup with enzymes (isomerase).
The resulting HFCS is a liquid mixture of dextrose and
fructose used by food manufacturers in soft drinks,
canned fruits, jams and other foods.

HFCS contains 42, 55, 90 or 99 percent fructose.

fructose

PROCESSING OF CORN STARCH HFCS

Corn starch is treated with -amylase,

-amylase of bacterial origin, to
produce shorter chains of sugars (dextrins) as starch fragments.

Next, an enzyme called glucoamylase,

glucoamylase obtained from the fungus
Aspergillus niger, breaks the fragments down even further to
yield the simple sugar glucose.

A third enzyme, glucose isomerase,

isomerase is expensive, and converts
glucose to various amounts of fructose.

HFCS-55 has the exact same sweetness intensity as sucrose (cola)

HFCS-42 is less sweet, used with fruit-based beverages and for baking

Glucose isomerase is so expensive that it is commonly

immobilized on a solid-based resin bead and the glucose syrup
passed over it. Can be used many times over before it slowly
looses its activity.

HFCS

HFCS is selected for different purposes.

Selection is based on specific desired properties:

Retain moisture and/or prevent drying out

Control crystallization
Produce a higher osmotic pressure (more molecules in solution) than
for sucrose
Control microbiological growth
Provide a ready yeast-fermentable substrate
Blend easily with sweeteners, acids, and flavorings
Provide a controllable substrate for browning and Maillard reaction.
Impart a degree of sweetness essentially = to invert liquid sugars
High sweetness
Low viscosity
Reduced tendency toward crystallization
Costs less than liquid sucrose or corn syrup blends
Retain moisture and/or prevent drying out of food product

HFCS

HFCS has the exact same sweetness and taste as an equal

amount of sucrose from cane or beet sugar. Despite being a
more complicated process than the manufacture of sugar, HFCS
is actually less costly.
It is also very easy to transport, being pumped into tanker
trucks.
Two of the enzymes used, -amylase and glucose-isomerase,
are genetically modified to make them more thermostable.
thermostable
This involves exchanging specific amino acids in the primary
sequence so that the enzyme is resistant to unfolding or
denaturing.
This allows the industry to use the enzymes at higher
temperatures without loss of activity.

Starch

Starches- #1 Hydrocolloid
Hydrocolloids are substances that will form a gel or
add viscosity on addition of water.
Most are polysaccharides and all interact with water.

The most common is starch

Starch is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin.

The size distribution of these hydrocolloids is the most

important factor in the texture and physical features of
foods

STARCH

Polymers of glucose
AMYLOSE linear chain of glucose

Glucose polymer linked -1,4

AMYLOPECTIN

branched polymer of glucose

Amylose

Amylopectin

AMYLOSE
Linear

polymer of glucose
1 - 4 linkages
Digestable by humans (4 kcal/g)
250-350 glucose units on average
Corn, wheat, and potato starch
~10-30%

amylose

AMYLOPECTIN
Branched

chain polymer of glucose

1 - 4 and 1 - 6 glycosidic linkages
Fully digestable by humans
1,000 glucose units is common
Branch

points every ~15-25 units

Starch

Amylopectin (black)
Amylose (blue)

Modified Starches

Gelatinization is the easiest modification

Heated in water then dried.

Acid and/heat will form dextrins

-Amylase

-Amylase

hydrolyzes (1-4) linkage

random attack to make shorter chains
Also attacks (1 - 4) linkages
Starts at the non-reducing end of the starch chain
Gives short dextrins and maltose

Both enzymes have trouble with (1 - 6) linkages

DEXTRINS are considered to be hydrolysis products of

incompletely broken down starch fractions

Polysaccharide Breakdown Products

Whats the difference between?

Maltose
Maltitol
Maltodextrins
Dextrins
Dextrans
Maltose = glucose disaccharide
Maltitol = example of a polyol
Maltodextrins = enzyme converted starch fragments

Dextrins = starch fragments (-1-4) linkages produced by

hydrolysis of amylose

Dextrans = polysaccharides made by bacteria and yeast

metabolism, fragments with mostly (1 - 6) linkages

Maltodextrins and enzyme-converted starch:

STARCH

fermentation

SUGARS
ETHANOL

MODIFIED STARCHES

GELATINIZED STARCH

alpha amylase

Maltodextrins
Corn Syrups

Sugars

The smaller the size of the products in these reactions, the

higher the dextrose equivalence (DE), and the sweeter
they are
Starch DE = 0
Glucose (dextrose) DE = 100
Maltodextrin (MD) DE is <20
Corn syrup solids (CS) DE is >20

Low DE syrup

alpha amylase

MD

beta amylase

High
DE
Syrup

Hydrocolloids
Binding water with carbohydrates
Gums

Vegetable gum polysaccharides are substances derived

from plants, including seaweed and various shrubs or trees,
have the ability to hold water, and often act as thickeners,
stabilizers, or gelling agents in various food products.

Plant gums - exudates, seeds

Marine hydrocolloids - extracts from seaweeds
Microbiological polysaccharides - exocellular polysaccharides
Modified, natural polysaccharides

FUNCTIONS IN FOOD
Gelatin
Viscosity
Suspension
Emulsification and stability
Whipping
Freeze thaw protection
Fiber (dietary fiber)

Gut health
Binds cholesterol

STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Electrical

charge, pH sensitive

Interactions

with oppositely charged molecules

Salts
Low

Chain

pH effects

length

Longer

Linear

chains are more viscous

vs Branched chains

Inter-entangled,

enter-woven molecules

Gums

GUAR (Guran Gum)

Most used, behind starch, low cost

Guar bean from India and Pakistan
Cold water soluble, highly branched galactomannan
Stable over large pH range, heat stable
Thickening agent, not a gel
Often added with xanthan gum (synergistic)

XANTHAN
Extracellular polysaccharide from Xanthomonas campestris

Very popular, inexpensive from fermentations

Forms very thick gels at very low concentrations

Gums
LOCUST BEAN
Branched

galactomannan polymer (like guar), but

needs hot water to solubilize
Bean from Italy and Spain
Jams, jellies, ice cream, mayonnaise

SEAWEED EXTRACTS
Carrageenans
Kappa

(from red seaweed)

(gel)
Iota (gel)
Lambda (thickener only)
Milk, baking, cheese, ice cream
Agar
Alginates

Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Polymer of glucose linked -1,4
Hemicellulose
Similar to cellulose
Consist of glucose and other monosaccharides
Arabinose,

xylose, other 5-carbon sugars

Pectin
Polymer of galacturonic acid

MODIFIED CELLULOSES
Chemically

modified cellulose
Do not occur naturally in plants
Similar to starch, but -(1,4) glycosidic bonds
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) most common
Acid

treatment to add a methyl group

Increases water solubility, thickening agent
Sensitive to salts and low pH
Fruit

fillings, custards, processed cheeses, high

fiber filler

PECTINS

Linear polymers of galacturonic acid

Gels form with degree of methylation of its carboxylic acid

groups
Many sources, all natural, apple and citrus pomace

Susceptible to degrading enzymes

Polygalacturonase (depolymerize)
Pectin esterases (remove methyl groups)

Longer polymers, higher viscosity

Lower methylation, lower viscosity
Increase electrolytes (ie. metal cations), higher viscosity
pH an soluble solids impact viscosity

PECTIC SUBSTANCES: cell cementing compound; fruits and vegetables;

pectin will form gel with appropriate concentration, amount of sugar and pH.
Basic unit comprised of galacturonic acid.
acid

Composition: polymer of galacturonic acids; may be partially esterified.

esterified

Pectic Acid

Pectin Molecule

Pectins

Pectins are important because they form gels

Mechanism of gel formation differs by the degree of esterification

(DE) of the pectin molecules

DE refers to that percentage of pectin units with a methyl group attached

Free COOH groups can crosslink with divalent cations

Sugar and acid under certain conditions can contribute to gel

structure and formation

LM pectin low methoxyl pectin has DE < 50% ; gelatin is

controlled by adding cations (like Ca++ and controlling the pH)

HM pectin high methoxyl pectin has DE >50% and forms a gel

under acidic conditions by hydrophobic interactions and H-bonding
with dissolved solids (i.e. sugar)

Hydrophobic attractions between neighboring pectin polymer chains

promote gelation

BETA-GLUCANS
Extracts

from the bran of barley and oats

Long glucose chains with mixed -linkages
Very large (~250,000 glucose units)
Water

soluble, but have a low viscosity

Can be used as a fat replacer
Responsible for the health claims (cholesterol) for
whole oat products
Formulated to reduce the glycemic index of a food

Others
CHITIN
Polymer of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine
Found in the exoskeleton of insects and shellfish
Many uses in industry, food and non-food.
INULIN
Chains of fructose that end in a glucose molecule

Generally a sweet taste

Isolated from Jerusalem artichokes and chicory
Act as a dietary fiber
Potentially a pre-biotic compound

COMPONENTS OF DIETARY FIBER

COMPONENT

SOURCE

Cellulose

All food plants

Hemicellulose

All food plants, especially cereal

bran

Pectin

Mainly fruit

Lignin

Mainly cereals and 'woody'

vegetables

Gums and some food

thickeners

Food additives in processed

foods

HYDROCOLLOIDS

A key attribute of gums is to produce viscous dispersions in water

Viscosity depends on:

Gum type
Temperature
Concentration of gum
Degree of polymerization of gum
Linear or branched polymers
Presence of other substances in the system

Solubility (dispersability in water) varies among gums

Agar is insoluble in cold water; dissolves in boiling water

Methylcellulose is insoluble in hot water, but soluble in cold !

Our First Browning Reaction

Caramelization

BROWNING REACTIONS in CARBOHYDRATES

There are 2 different kinds of browning reactions with carbohydrates:

Caramelization

Maillard (or non-enzymatic) browning

CARAMELIZATION occurs when sucrose is heated >150-170C (high

heat!) via controlled thermal processing

Dehydration of the sugar, removal of a water molecule

The structure of caramelized sugar is poorly understood but can exist in

both (+) and (-) species

Commonly used as a colorant

(+) charged caramel = promotes brown color in brewing and baking

industries

(-) charged caramel in beverage/ soft drink industry (cola and root beer)

CARAMELIZATION

What is referred to as caramel pigment consists of a

complex mixture of polymers and fragments of
indefinite chemical composition

Caramelans (24, 36, or 125 carbon lengths)

Since caramel is a charged molecule, to be compatible

with phosphoric acid in colas the negative form is used

Caramel flavor is also due to these and other fragments,

condensation, and dehydration products.

diacetyl, formic acid, hydroxy dimethylfuranone

Artificial and
Alternative Sweeteners

The perception of sweetness

is proposed to be due to a
chemical interaction that
takes place on the tongue
Between a tastant molecule
and tongue receptor protein

THE AH/B THEORY OF SWEETNESS

A sweet tastant molecule (i.e. glucose) is called the AH+/Bglycophore.
glycophore
It binds to the receptor B-/AH+ site through mechanisms
that include H-bonding.
H-bonding

AH+ / B-

B
Glycophore

Hydrophobic interaction
AH

AH

Tongue receptor protein molecule

For sweetness to be perceived, a molecule needs to have certain requirements.
It must be soluble in the chemical environment of the receptor site on the
tongue. It must also have a certain molecular shape that will allow it to bond
to the receptor protein.
Lastly, the sugar must have the proper electronic distribution. This electronic
distribution is often referred to as the AH, B system. The present theory of
sweetness is AH-B-X (or gamma). There are three basic components
to a sweetener, and the three sites are often represented as a triangle.

Identifying the AH+ and Bregions of two sweet tastant

molecules: glucose and saccharin.

Gamma () sites are relatively hydrophobic functional groups

such as benzene rings, multiple CH2 groups, and CH3

WHAT IS SUCRALOSE AND HOW IS IT MADE?

Sucralose, an intense sweetener made from sugar,
is approximately 600 times sweeter than sugar.
In a patented multi stage process three of the hydroxyl
groups in the sucrose molecule are selectively substituted
with 3 atoms of chlorine.
This intensifies the sugar like taste while creating a safe,
stable low kcal sweetener with zero calories.
Although its chemical structure is very close to that of sucrose
(table sugar), sucralose is not recognized by the body as a carbohydrate
and has no effect on insulin secretion or overall carbohydrate metabolism
in healthy human beings.

Developers found that selective halogenations changed

the perceived sweetness of a sucrose molecule, with chlorine
and bromine being the most effective.
Chlorine, as a lighter halogen, retains higher water solubility,
so chlorine was picked as the ideal halogen for substitution.

Sucrose portion

Fructose portion

Compared to sucrose, sucralose has three key molecular

differences that make it similar in structure, yet different in
metabolism and function.
These three differences are chlorine. Three chlorine atoms,
in the form of chloride ions, replace three hydroxyl groups in
native sucralose.
It was determined that the tightly bound chlorine
created a stable molecular structure, approximately
600 times sweeter than sugar.

In sucralose, the two chlorine atoms present in the fructose

portion of the molecule comprise the hydrophobic X-site,
which extends over the entire outer region of the fructose
portion of the sucralose molecule.
The hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions are situated on
opposite ends of the molecule, similar to sucrose,
apparently unaffected by the third chlorine on the C4 of
the pyranose ring.
The similar structure of sucralose to native sucrose is
responsible for its remarkably similar taste to sugar.

hydrophobic
Area (AH+): This area has hydrogens available to
hydrogen bond to chlorine attached to the glucose
bottom portion of the molecule.

hydrophilic
Area (B -): This area has a partially negative
oxygen available to hydrogen bond to the
partially positive hydrogen of an alcohol group.

hydrophilic

The drastically increased sweetness of sucralose is due

to the structure of molecule. In sucralose, the two chlorine
atoms present in the fructose portion of the molecule lead
to more hydrophobic properties on the opposite side of the
molecule (upper left), which extends over the entire outer
region of the fructose portion of the sucralose molecule.

In 2005 Coca-Cola released a new formulation of Diet Coke

sweetened with sucralose, called Diet Coke with Splenda.

Wheat
Bran
Removed

Whole
Wheat

Corn

Milled,
Polished
Rice

Cereals
Cereals
Starch, protein, fiber
Water
Lysine
Structure
Husk

(inedible)
Bran (fiber)
Endosperm (starch, protein, oil)
Germ (oil)

Wheat Kernel

Bran
Fiber

Endosperm
Starch
Protein
Oil
Germ
Oil
Protein

Cereal Grain

Composition of Cereals

Wheat
2

types of wheat
HARD = higher protein (gluten), makes
elastic dough, used for bread-making
Higher

quality
High water absorption
SOFT

= lower protein (gluten), make weak

doughs/batters, used for cakes, pastries,
biscuits, cakes, crackers, etc.
Lower

quality due to lower protein content

and useful applications

Wheat
Wheat Milling
To produce flour
Cleaned with air (dust, bugs, chaff)
Soaked to 17% moisture - optimum for
milling
Remove husk
Crack seeds - frees germ from endosperm

Wheat
Wheat Milling
Rollers- two metal wheels turning in opposite
direction of each other
Endosperm is brittle and breaks
Germ and bran form flat flakes and are
removed by screens or sieves
Endosperm = flour
Less

Whole

color and less nutrients as milling continues

wheat flour = do not remove all of the

bran and/or germ

Wheat Mill Grinding Rolls

Wheat Milling Sifters

Wheat
Wheat Enrichment
Add B-vitamins and some minerals to most
white flours (since missing the bran)
Uses of flour
Cakes, breads, etc.
Pasta, noodles, etc.
Course flour, not leavened

Rice Processing

Rice
Rice Milling
Most rice is "whole grain"
Remove husk, bran, germ by rubbing with
abrasive disks or rubber belts
Polish endosperm to glassy finish
Brown rice = very little milling

Rice
Rice Enrichment
Add some vitamins, minerals
Coat rice with nutrients (folic acid)
Parboiling or steeping (converted rice)
Boil rice before milling (~10 hrs, 70C)
Nutrients, vitamins and minerals, will
migrate into endosperm (no fortification)

Rice
Rice
Other rice products
Quick cooking (instant) = precooked, dried
Rice flour
Sake (15-20% alcohol)

Advantages/Disadvantages of
Milling Rice
Brown

Rice

Minimal

milling

Higher in lipid (shortens shelf-life)

Higher in minerals (not removed in milling)

White

(Milled) Rice

Extreme

milling

Vitamins and minerals removed (Thiamin)

Fortification to prevent Beriberi disease

Anatomy of Corn

Corn
Corn
Some fresh/frozen/canned corn, but most is milled
Dry milling (grits, meal, flour)
Adjust moisture to 21%- optimum for "dry" milling
Loosen hull (pericarp) and germ by rollers
Dry to 15% moisture
Remove husk with air blast; germ and bran by sieving
Continue grinding endosperm to grits, meal or flour
Process very similar to wheat milling at this point.

Grits = large particle size

Meal = medium particle size
Flout = small particle size

Grain Processing
Wet milling (corn starch, corn syrups)
Soak corn
Grind with water into a wet "paste"
Slurry is allowed to settle and the germ and
hulls float to top (high in oil)
Remainder is endosperm (starch/protein)
Centrifuged or filtered
to

remove/collect the starch

Grain Processing
Wet milling (cont'd.)
Dried starch = corn starch
Can produce corn syrups from starch
Use enzymes (amylase) to break starch into
glucose (corn syrup)
Use another enzyme (isomerase) to convert
glucose into fructose (HFCS)
Can also produce ethanol from corn syrup

Products from Corn

Grain Usage
Other grains- mostly for animal feed
Barley = used in beer
Rye = can not use alone (poor protein quality)
Oats = oatmeal, flakes
Breakfast cereals
Made from many different grains

Baking
Ingredients
Flour
Starch
Protein

= gluten; forms elastic dough that will

expand during rising

Baking
Ingredients
Leavening agent
Rising due to carbon dioxide or air
Yeast = alcoholic fermentation produces
carbon dioxide
Baking powder = chemical reaction that
releases carbon dioxide

Baking
Ingredients
Leavening
Air leavening = sponge cake
Partial leavening = pie crusts, crackers
Eggs
Add flavorings
Add color
Helps holds air when whipped

Baking
Ingredients
Shortening
Tenderizes
Hold

air

Sugar
Tenderizes
Sweetness
Fermentable

sugar
Helps retain moisture

Baking
Oven baking
Gas production and rising continues
Denaturation and coagulation of proteins
Drying and crust formation
Flavor development
Color development = Carmelization and
Maillard reaction

Baking
High altitudes
Excessive gas production (less pressure)
Weakens and collapses dough
Not as bad for bread
Can alter formula
Less baking powder
Make tougher dough
Add less tenderizers

Legumes and Oilseeds

Soybeans, peanuts, etc.
Higher in oil (20-50%) and protein (20%)
Methionine and/or cysteine are limiting
amino acids
Protein complementation with cereals

Legumes and Oilseeds

Soybeans

= used for both oil and protein

Peanuts = whole nut, oil, peanut butter