Data Acquistion Principles

Training Course on Vibration
Analysis Level-II
by
Centre for Vibration Analysis & Machine Condition
Monitoring (CVCM)
szafar_kazmi@yahoo.com
Ph:051-9246021
Fax:051-9218114
Cell:0300-8561060
VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
OVERVIEW
Choosing Your Instrumentation
What do you want to achieve?
What is your present and future budget for equipment & training?
Person power? Knowledge level?
Number of machines to be monitored?
Type of machines to be monitored?
Environment?
INSTRUMENT TYPES
Overall Level Meters
Quick Check Analyzers
FFT Data Collector/ Analyzers
Full Feature Analyzers
Real Time Spectrum Analyzers
Instrument Quality Tape Recorders
Dedicated Balancing instruments
Data Acquisition
Principles
&
Signal Processing
Data Acquisition System
Raw Signal
Amp
Integrator
1x, 2x
Accelerometer
High Pass
Filter
Amp
Low Pass
Filter
Detector
P-P or RMS
AC
Output
Display
Reading
DC
Output
Data Acquisition System

Sensor/transducer for measurement of physical
variables.
Signal-Conditioner/transmission
circuitry,
enables conversion of signal outputs
transducers to a readable form for
Acquisition/interface modules.
that
from
Data
The Data Acquisition Hardware comprising

Multiplexer, Amplifier, A/D Converter, Buffer
Memory, etc. to digitize the analog signals for CPU.
Computer/CPU to process the digital data for data
processing, display, outputs (control), storage,
transmission, etc.
Selection of Transducers
What is Transducer?
A transducer is a device which transforms a nonelectrical physical quantity (i.e. temperature,
sound or light) into an electrical signal (i.e.
voltage, current, capacity)
In other word it is a device that is capable of
converting the physical quantity into a
proportional electrical quantity such as voltage
or current.
Selection of Transducer
Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to

produce detectable output.
Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the
range requirement and have a good resolution over the
entire range.
Accuracy: it is defined as how close the output of the
transducer is to the expected value. High accuracy is
required.
Size: Depending on the application of the transducer, the
size may be of primary importance
Environmental Compatibility: the transducer is
selected based on the various environmental conditions it
can work.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer
should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.
Cost: The cost of a transducer is an important
consideration, especially when many sensors are needed
Table: Transducer Characteristics
Vibration Transducers
SensorsTransducersProbesWhat is it?
.It basically converts mechanical
vibration to an electrical signal
Accelerometer
Charge Type &
Line Drive
Constant Voltage &
Constant Current
Velocity Probe
Displacement
Shaft Riders
Proximity Probes
(Eddy Current Probes)
Vibration Transducer Types

Seismic:- Bearing relative to space.
Velocity Pickups
Accelerometers
Piezoelectric velocity pickups
Relative:- Shaft relative to bearing.

Non-contact Eddy Current Displacement Probes
Absolute:- Shaft relative to space.

Shaft Contact Displacement Probes (including Shaft
Sticks and Shaft Riders)
Velocity Sensors
Accelerometers
Displacement Probes (non-contact, eddy

current probes)
Seismic Transducer
VELOCITY PICKUP
Velocity Pickups
ADVANTAGES
Self Generating no power supply required

Magnet inside coil generates velocity
proportional to vibration
Spring mass system
10 Hz. to 1000 Hz.
Phase change 900
Directional mounting
Large & Heavy
Output = mV/inch/sec
Wide range of available outputs
Note :- There are two types of velocity pickups the above
advantages do not apply to piezoelectric velocity
transducers.
Piezoelectric Velocity Pickup

ADVANTAGES
Remember everything that

you just learned about an
accelerometer.
The
output
of
the
accelerometer
has
been
integrated to velocity and has
a 900 phase change
100
mV/inch/sec
mV/mm/sec)
500
mV/inch/sec
mV/mm/sec)
(4
(20
SESMIC TRANSDUCERS
ACCELEROMETER
S
IEPE
Internal
Amplifier
Industrial
AMP
AMP
Charge Mode
External Amplifier
High Temperature
Accelerometers - advantages
No moving parts, no wear.
Rugged.
Very large dynamic range.
Wide frequency range.
Compact, often low weight.
High stability.
Can be mounted in any orientation.
Measures casing vibration
Measures absolute vibration
Integrate to Velocity
Easy to mount
Large range of frequency response
Available in many configurations
Accelerometer Types
The three most common are :
Compression Type
Inverted Compression Type
Shear Type
Compression type accelerometer
Acoustic Shield
Preload Stud
Seismic Mass
Piezoelectric Material
Electric connector
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Amplifier
Compression Type Accelerometers

Advantages
Relatively low cost
Disadvantages
Sensitive to base strain
Sensitive to Thermal transients
Can cause over-saturation and
transducer settling problems
Widely used
Inverted compression type
ICP Circuit
Seismic Mass
Preload Sleeve
Mounting stud receptacle
Shear Type Accelerometer
Acoustic Shield
Seismic Mass
Electric connector
Post
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Circuit
Advantages - Shear Type

Advantages
Lower sensitivity to base strain
Large dynamic range
Much less sensitive to temperature transients
Stabilizes quickly when taking measurements at low
frequencies.
Disadvantage: Generally higher cost due to added components
Typical Accelerometer
Parameters/Specifications
Typical Accelerometer Frequency

Response
Frequency Response & Mounting

Technique-1
Sensitivity

Technique (2)
Stud
Mounting Mount
Pad
Flat
Magnet
Dual Rail
Magnet
Hand
Probe
1.5KHz
10KHz
32KHz
Freq.

Technique (3)
Frequency Range, Sensitivity &

Application
What is the frequency range of your
InstrumentCables
Sensor Sensor Coupling
Cable
length ?
Sensor freq. =
12 KHz
Sensor
coupling ?
Instrument
freq. = 80
KHz
What is the fault frequency you are looking

for ?
Frequency Range
Relative Sensitivity
30
dB
20
Useful Frequency Range

10% limit 0.3f0 3dB limit 0.5f0
10
Frequency Response of Sensor
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
2Hz
10KHz
Frequency [xf0]
Non-contact Eddy Current Probe (Relative)
Non-contact Pickups
MAGNETIC
FIELD
NON-CONTACT PICKUP
PICKUP
COIL
SHAFT
OSCILLATOR
DETECTOR
DC
GAP
METER
AMPLIFIER
SIGNAL SENSOR
DISPLACEMENT
SIGNAL - TO
ANALYSER OR
MONITOR
Non-contact Eddy Current Displacement

Probes
USED FOR:
Relative Shaft Vibration.
Radial & axial shaft position.
Differential expansion between case and rotor.
Especially effective on machinery with high mass rigid casings

and relatively low mass
rotors supported in journal type bearings.
N.C.P Problems & precautions
Only Measures Displacement - Sensitive

Only to low frequency defects.
Subject to Mechanical and Electrical Runout .
Units must be pre calibrated for specific

shaft materials.
Shaft Contact Displacement Probes

(Absolute)
Shaft Sticks
Hardwood,
fish-tail,
fixed
to
accelerometer or velocity pickup
Measures vibration amplitude &

phase
Shaft Riders
Shaft Rider
PICKUP MOUNTING STUD
SHAFT RIDER ASSEMBLY
MACHINE HOUSING
NON-METALLIC TIP
SHAFT SURFACE
Direct Contact : Absolute Measurements
Shaft Riders (permanently installed)
Shaft Sticks or Fishtails
safety issue
very useful below coupling of vertical pumps
Typical Uses of Vibration Transducers
Radial Shaft
Vibration & Position
Radial Casing
Vibration
Axial Shaft
Vibration & Position
Measurement Parameter
Find
the
flattest
spectrum
Normally
velocity is used.
For very slow running

machine (< 600 RPM)
displacement
is
preferred.
For High frequency

diagnostics
use
acceleration
Always
acceleration
Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
use
for
Monitoring Techniques
Vib.
Acceleration
accentuatesAcceleration
HIGH frequencies,
and attenuates LOW frequencies.
Velocity
flat treats all frequencies equally.
Velocity
Displacement
accentuates LOW frequencies,
and attenuates
HIGH frequencies.
Displacement
Freq.
Comparison of Transducers
Proximity Probes
Accelerometers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to install
Good for detecting

frequency faults
No moving parts
Good
range
Small/light weight
Withstands
temperatures
Measures
motion
high
shaft
Same transducers for axial

thrust, speed and radial
vibration
Measures
directly
displacements units
Measures
position)
DC
No moving parts
Needs double integration

to displacement
Needs
source
external
power
Provides
information
on
dynamic motion
limited
shaft
Not good for slow speed

machines
high
dynamic/frequency
directly
Sensitive to shaft materials
Installation
Limited
freq.
range.
No
detection of rolling element
bearing faults
Temperature restrictions
External proximitor needed
in
(shaft
Run-out problems
Vibration Pickups
Journal
Bearings
instability
Shaft
Rotating
Speed
Blades
2x
Rolling Element
Bearings
Gear
3x
1 KHz
Non Contact Displacement
3KHz
Velocity Probe
Accelerometer
25KHz
Monitoring Techniques
Types of Bearings
Journal
JournalBearings
Bearings
Stationary
StationarySignals
Signals
Relative
RelativeLow
LowFrequency
Frequency
Use Proximity probes

Rolling
RollingElement
ElementBearings
Bearings
Modulated
ModulatedRandom
RandomNoise
Noise
Pulsating
Pulsatingsignals
signals
High
HighFrequency
Frequency
Use Accelerometers
Transducers and Mounting Techniques
Although there are many different types of transducers available, the most common
type used for day to day data collection are Accelerometers.
These transducers provide an electrical charge proportional to acceleration by

stressing piezoelectric crystals typically 100mV/g sensors are used.
Data Quality
Whether it is your job to collect the data and/or analyse the data it is important to
understand that the technologies will not give you the answer to a machines
problem unless you have collected meaningful, quality data
There are certain considerations that must be taken prior to any data being
collected, these are:
A good understanding of the internal make up of the machine, in order to

understand the best transmission path for data collection - bearing locations,
load zones etc.
Ensure data is collected in a repeatable manner so we can compare two or more

readings to each other - trending purposes
Variable speed machines - it is very important to collect data with the correct
running speed enter into the analyser
Transmission Path
Damaged caused to a machine component will cause a certain amount of

vibration/sound or heat to propagate away from the initial impact.
It is the effect of the impact/force that we are trying to detect
In many cases the further you are away from the initial event the weaker the signal
will become, resulting in the data appearing to be lower in value.
In more extreme cases the impact can be lost amongst other machine noise by the
time it has reached your transducer, resulting in no detection of a machine problem.
Usually the best place to acquire data from a machine, is at the bearings.
This is because the bearings are the only part of the machine that connect
the internal rotating components to the stationary components (Casing)
Repeatable Data
Collect data in the same manner each time.
This consistency will allow you to trend the machinery condition and properly judge the
progression of faults
In order to aid with repeatable data the analyser requests for data to be collected in
certain locations on the machine.
These are called Measurement Points
A measurement point is determined by three characters and a description.

Each character refers to a particular place on the machine being monitored
E.g. M1H is a typical measurement point
Measurement Points
A measurement point is defined as three alpha numeric digits along with their
respective definition
Orientation and location on each component
The image on the right is taken

from the screen of the 2130
analyser during a collection
route
The
measurement
point
identifier can be seen in the top
right while the point description
is shown just below
Measurement Points
The first letter of the Point Identifier refers to the type of machine being monitored
M = MotorP = PumpF = Fan
The second character represented by a number indicates the location on the machine
Inboard (Drive End) or Outboard (Non Drive End)
The third letter refers to the orientation of the sensor or the type of processing being
done by the analyser
H = Horizontal V = Vertical
P = Peakvue Change in DSP of Analyser
Measurement Points
The following example shows how the numbering system changes as you cross from
one component to the next
M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
M1P Motor Outboard Horizontal Peakvue
P1H Pump Inboard Horizontal
P1P Pump Inboard Horizontal Peakvue
Notice how the 1 is not always the Outboard
This changes when the next component is required for data collection
The numbering system starts from 1 again
2
1
2
Locating Turning Speed
Turning Speed
When performing analysis on spectrums and waveforms, it is of utmost

importance to set the turning speed (running speed) correctly
When the turning speed has been located, the software will re-calculate all the
frequencies to this exact speed.
Once the turning speed has been set, it is now possible to determine what is
Synchronous/Non-synchronous and Sub-synchronous energy.
Turning Speed
The spectrum is showing numerous
impacts
appearing
at
different
frequencies.
Ex6
12
By locating the turning speed, it is very

clear that the impacts are Nonsynchronous
BFI - Example 6
-P2V PUMP OUTBOARD VERTICAL
Route Spectrum
30-Jan-96 15:14:51
OVRALL= 13.52 V-DG
RMS = 13.46
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2987.
RPS = 49.78
10
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency in kCPM
120
140
160
Freq:
Ordr:
Spec:
2.987
1.000
.115
Analysis Techniques Test

Have a look at the spectrum below.
Where was the data taken?
When the turning speed has been

located
EX3
1.0
What type
present?
of
energy
Los - Example 3
-P2V Pump Outboard Vertical
Analyze Spectrum
15-Nov -95 10:00:16
RMS = 1.27
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12.28
0.8
RMS Velocity in mm/Sec
0.6
P2V
Synchronous Energy
0.4
0.2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
Frequency in CPM
24000
30000
Freq: 736.86
Ordr: 1.000
Spec: .245
is
Things to Remember about a Route
A route includes information from one area only

A route does not have to include all the equipment defined in that area
The order of the equipment in the route can differ from that of the database
Equipment can appear in more than one route BUT can not appear in the same route
twice
Route measurement points may not include all the points configured on the
equipment
Route measurement points do not have to be in the same order as they appear in the
database
Data is not stored at the route level but in the database with the measurement points,
there for routes can be deleted but will not loose data from the database
A maximum of 50 routes can be stored to each area
Each equipment has a maximum of 144 points
And one route can only contain 1044 measurement points
Important: A route file contains the equipment and measurement
point IDs and definitions / speeds. For this reason the route does
not recognise points if their IDs are altered in the database
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the
machine
1X
2X
3X- 6X
BEARING BAND 1
9-30X RPM
BEARING BAND 2
30-50X RPM
Frequency Bands
machine
1X
Imbalance
2X
3X- 6X
BEARING BAND 1
9-30X RPM
BEARING BAND 2
30-50X RPM
Frequency Bands
machine
1X
Imbalance
2X
Misalignment
3X- 6X
BEARING BAND 1
9-30X RPM
BEARING BAND 2
30-50X RPM
Frequency Bands
machine
1X
Imbalance
2X
Misalignment
3X- 6X
Looseness
BEARING BANDBearing
1
Band 1 BAND 2
BEARING
9-30X RPM
30-50X RPM
Bearing Band 2
Frequency Bands
machine
1X
Imbalance
2X
Misalignment
3X- 6X
Looseness
BEARING BANDBearing
1
Band 1 BAND 2
BEARING
9-30X RPM
30-50X RPM
Frequency Bands
machine
1X
Imbalance
2X
Misalignment
3X- 6X
Looseness
BEARING BANDBearing
1
Band 1 BAND 2
BEARING
9-30X RPM
30-50X RPM
Bearing Band 2
Digital Signal
Processing
Analog Signals
Analog signals:
Directly measurable quantities in terms of

some other quantity.
Examples:
Thermometer mercury height rises as temperature
rises.
Car Speedometer Needle moves farther right as you
accelerate.
Stereo Volume increases as you turn the knob.
Digital Signals
Digital Signals:
Have only two states.

For digital computers, we refer to binary states,
0 and 1. 1 can be on, 0 can be off.
Examples:
Light switch can be either on or off.
Door to a room is either open or closed.
Examples of Analog to Digital

Applications
Microphones - take your voice
varying
pressure waves in the air and convert them into
varying electrical signals.
Strain Gages - determines the amount of

strain (change in dimensions) when a stress is
applied.
Thermocouple temperature measuring
device converts thermal energy to electric
energy.
Voltmeters
Digital Multi-meters
Machine Vibration Signal

Time Signal
Absolute Vibration
with Free-Space
Machine Vibration Signal

Relative Vibration with
mounting position of Prox. Probe
AC Signal
DC
Signal
Bandpass Measurement
Peak
RMS
Avg
Peak
to
Peak
Freq. = 1/Time
Freq. = Hz
= rev. per second
Machine Freq. are function of RPM
i.e. rev. per minute
Always ask....
Are you measuring RMS or Peak , etc ??
What is the frequency range ??
How much averaging?
Detector
Apeak peak
T
ARMS
A peak
RMS
For Sine waves only:
Apeak
T = averaging period
True peak - peak
1
2
a
(t )dt
T 0
A peak
Apeak peak
RMS
2 * ARMS
Machine Signal Types

Stationary Signals
Vibration from rotating machines
Non - Stationary Signals
Vibration from reciprocating machines (short term)
Vibration from run-ups and coast-down
Analog to Digital Converter

Converts analog signals into binary words
Quantizing: breaking down analog value is a

set of finite states.
Encoding: assigning a digital word or number

to each state and matching it to the input
signal.
Quantizing-1
Example:
Output
States
Discrete Voltage
Ranges (V)
0.00-1.25
1.25-2.50
2.50-3.75
of
3.75-5.00
discrete
states
5.00-6.25
with
1.25V
6.25-7.50
7.50-8.75
8.75-10.0
You have
signals.
0-10V
Separate
into
them
set
increments.
(How did we get

1.25V?
See next slide
Quantizing-2
The number of possible states that the
converter can output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter
Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N = 23 = 8
Analog quantization size:
Q = (Vmax - Vmin)/N = (10V 0V)/8 = 1.25V
Encoding
Here
the
we
assign
digital
value
(binary number) to
each state for the
computer to read.
Output
States
Output Binary Equivalent
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Accuracy of A/D Conversion
There are two ways to best improve

accuracy of A/D conversion:
increasing the resolution which improves the

accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the
analog signal.
increasing the sampling rate which increases

the maximum frequency that can be
measured.
Resolution
Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can

produce) = Analog Quantization size (Q).
(Q) = Vrange / 2n, where Vrange is the range of analog voltages

which can be represented.
limited by signal-to-noise ratio (should be around 6dB).
In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high

resolution.
A lower resolution would be if we used a 2-bit converter,

then the resolution would be 10/22 = 2.50V.
Sampling Rate
Sampling Rate: The sampling rate (SR) is the rate at which amplitude values are
digitized from the original waveform or Frequency at which ADC evaluates
analog signal.
Continuous analog signal from a sensor
Analog signal sampled at discrete intervals
Sampling Rate (contd)
Sampling Rate: the sampling rate (SR) is the rate at which amplitude
values are digitized from the original waveform or Frequency at
which ADC evaluates analog signal.
As we see in the second picture, evaluating the signal more

often more accurately depicts the ADC signal.
Aliasing
Aliasing
Occurs
when
the
input
signal
is
changing much faster than the sample rate.
For example, a 2 kHz sine wave being sampled

at 1.5 kHz would be reconstructed as a 500 Hz
(the aliased signal) sine wave.

Nyquist Rule:
Use a sampling frequency at least twice as high

as the maximum frequency in the signal to
avoid aliasing.
Frequency Filtering
Filters
A filter is a function that in the frequency domain has a

value close to 1 in the range of frequencies that the analyst
wishes to retain and close to zero in the range of
frequencies that the analyst wishes to eliminate.
The filter can be applied in the time domain or in the

frequency domain but their function is best understood in
the frequency domain
If the filter is a mechanical or electrical device which

operates on the continuous time physical signal it is called
an analogue filter.
If the filter is a numerical algorithm or mechanical device

which operates on sampled data it is called a digital filter.
Frequency Filtering
ypes of filters:
High-Pass filters
As the name imply, a high pass filter allows high
frequencies to pass. (lower frequency limit)
Low-Pass filters
Allow low frequencies to pass through
(upper limit)
Bandpass filters
Allows only frequencies within the band
Anti-aliasing filters
Low pass filter at half the sampling frequencies
Frequency Filtering (contd)

Typical spectrum of a machine without
any filter applied
High-Pass filters
Low-Pass filters
Bandpass filters
Discrete Fourier Transform
The signal that comes to the analyzer is analog signal. It

must be digitally sampled by the analyzer. This process is a
variation of FFT and is known as DFT.
For DFT the waveform is re-created in the analyzer by

digitally sampling and then transformed into the frequency
domain.
To under stand the FFT digital sampling process ,we must

have the under standing of:
L.O.R
Fmax
Length of Waveform
Digital Sample Size
FFT (DFT) - Pitfalls
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) - Pitfalls
FFT - Fast Fourier Transform is an efficient means of

calculating a DFT (Discrete
Fourier Transform). Basically, it transform a time signal

into a frequency spectrum.
1. Aliasing
High frequencies appearing as low frequencies.
2. Leakage
Memory contents forced to be periodic.
Can give discontinuities when ends joined.
3. Picket fence effect
Actual spectrum sampled at discrete frequencies.
Peaks may be missing.
FFT pitfalls - Aliasing Effect
Sampling rate too slow

High frequency analysis results in false low frequency
signal
Solution:
Use Anti-aliasing filter.

Typically a 1K (1024 point) transform, 512 frequency components are
calculated.
and 400 lines displayed. Similarly a 2K transform 800 lines are

displayed.
FFT pitfalls - Leakage

+ve
1st Sample
-ve
..give discontinuities
when ends joined
2nd Sample
Use Hanning Window
+ve
-ve
FFT - Picket Fence Effect
Actual
Spectrum
Measured
Spectrum
Lines of Resolution
Lines of resolution determine the clarity of the spectral

data.
The
better
the
resolution
the
more
accurate
the
frequency displayed
The number of lines of resolution selected are divided

into the maximum frequency scale (Fmax) to arrive at the
bin width (BW).
BW = Fmax/LOR
The lines are actually centre frequencies of bins of energy
All the energy within the bin is summed up to give a

single amplitude frequency
Resolution
BW = Fmax / LOR
Energy is summed up
within a Bin and plotted
Centre Frequency
at the centre frequency.
Bandwidth
Lines of Resolution
Lines of Resolution (contd)

TA16
0.20
0.5
L2 - TA 16
-M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
Analyze Spectrum
13-Mar-01 09:14:16
09:13:53
PK = .3852
.7078
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 1497.
1496.
RPS = 24.95
24.94
PK Acceleration in G-s
PK Acceleration in G-s
0.16
0.4
The spectrum shown displays

data at 800 L.O.R with an Fmax
of 1600 Hz
0.12
0.3
0.08
0.2
0.04
0.1
0
0
400
800
Frequency in Hz
1200
1600
The second spectrum

displays the same data but
with 3200 L.O.R over the
same Fmax
Windowing and Leakage
FFT based measurements are subject to errors from an

effect known as leakage.
This effect occurs when the FFT is computed from of a block

of data which is not periodic.
To correct this problem appropriate windowing functions

must be applied.
The user must choose the appropriate window function for

the specific application.
When windowing is not applied correctly, then errors may be

introduced in the FFT amplitude, frequency or overall shape
of the spectrum.
Leakage: Leakage is caused when the time waveform signal

does NOT begin and end at the same point, introducing
spurious frequencies.
The Window or weighting function attenuates the signal

towards the edge of the window minimizing leakage.
Frequency
Frequency

Required to solve Leakage
Several Types:
Hanning Most Commonly used
Uniform
Hamming
Blackman-Harris
Hanning Window: best compromise between frequency
resolution and amplitude accuracy for steady-state
machinery analysis
Uniform or Flat-Top:
machinery analysis.
is the best choice for transient
The most common windows and their features are given

below.
This table can be used to choose the best windowing

function for each application.
Averaging
Linear Averaging: In linear averaging, each instantaneous spectrum is

added to the next and the sum is divided by the total number of
spectra. This method is useful in obtaining repeatable data for fault
trending, as used in most predictive maintenance programs.
Peak-hold Averaging: Peak hold is not a true averaging method. During

sampling time, the peak value registered in each analysis cell is
captured and
displayed. This method is very useful in viewing
transients or for stress analysis calculations.
Exponential Averaging: This technique takes the most recent spectrum

collected and weighs it more heavily than the past data. It is useful in
observing conditions that are changing slowly with respect to sampling
time i.e., a steady-state process.
Synchronous Averaging: This method utilizes a synchronizing signal

from the machine being analyzed. The synchronizing signal is usually
derived from a photocell, electromagnetic pickup, or some other form
of tachometer input The vibration input is sampled at precisely the
Overlap Averaging
When more than 1 average is used to calculate the FFT, it is

possible to use overlapping samples, as shown in Figure
below:
This works well since the first part and last part of the
sample have their amplitudes reduced in normal averaging,
while the overlapping sample takes full readings at these
positions.
The reduction in accuracy is very small, and for FFTs with a

low Fmax and a lot of averages, collection times can be
reduced considerably.
For example, an FFT with 400 lines, an Fmax of 6000 CPM,

and 8 averages without overlapping takes 32 seconds to
gather the samples. With 50% overlap averaging, sampling
requires only 18 seconds.
Display/Storage (1)
The data collector/analyzer can collect and store only a

limited amount of data.
Therefore, the data must be downloaded to the computer

to form a history and long-term machinery information
database for comparison and trending.
To perform the above tasks, management and analysis of

machinery data, database management software are
required.
These database management programme for machinery

maintenance store vibration data and make comparison
between current measurements, past measurements and
predefined alarm limits.
Display/Storage (2)
Measurements
transferred
to
the
vibration
analysis
software are rapidly investigated for deviations from

normal conditions.
Overall vibration levels, FFTS, time waveforms.

reports can be generated showing machines whose
vibration level cross alarm thresholds.
Current data are compared to baseline data for analysis

and also trended to show vibration changes over a period
of time.
Trend plots give early warnings of possible defects and are

used to schedule the best time to repair.
Digital Signal Processing (Important

Formulae)
Waveforms
Waveforms (1)
The time waveform is the electrical signal from the sensor.
It is a trace of the voltage changes as the instantaneous

vibration changes from moment to moment.
This voltage is graphed with time. Thus the name Time

waveform. The waveform provides a view into exactly how
that point is moving or vibrating over time.
Waveforms (2)
Just like the spectral there are certain patterns and

characteristics to look for when conducting waveform
analysis.
Once the characteristics have been identified, the

analyst can rule out certain faults
e.g:
if the waveform is periodic faults like

Looseness,
Bearing defects, Cracks could
be ruled out.
Data from the time plot will indicate what type of

vibration is present. The five types of vibration are
harmonic, periodic, beating, impulsive, or random
Waveforms (3)
The analysis of time waveform data is not a new technique. In the early days of vibration
analysis time waveform data was viewed on oscilloscopes and frequency components
calculated by hand. The relationship between frequency and time is as follows:
f = 1/p where:
f is the frequency in Hz
p is the period in seconds (the amount of time required to complete 1 cycle)
Knowledge
of
this
relationship permits the
determination
of
frequency components
from the raw waveform
data.
Waveforms(4)
For example:
This waveform was acquired

from a 1785 RPM pump. The
time spacing between the impacts
is 0.0337 seconds. From this
information the frequency can be
determined.
f = 1/p = 1 / 0.0337 = 29.67
Hz = 1780 CPM
This indicates that the impact is
occurring at a frequency of 1 x
RPM.
Waveforms(5)
In most situations the time waveform pattern is very complex as illustrated below and
therefore the determination of frequency components is extremely difficult using this
method and is not recommended.
In most situations time waveform data is best utilized by applying the principles of
pattern recognition and if necessary calculating the frequency components of the
major events in the waveform pattern.
When to Use Time Waveform
Time waveform can be used effectively to enhance spectral information in the

following applications:
Low speed applications (less than 100 RPM).
Indication of true amplitude in situations where impacts occur such as assessment of
rolling element bearing defect severity.
Gears.
Sleeve bearing machines with X-Y probes (2 channel orbit analysis)
Looseness.
Rubs.
Beats
When NOT to Use Time Waveform
Time waveform can be applied to any vibration problem. In some situations

normal spectral and phase data provide better indications as to the source of
the problem without the added complexity of time waveform data. Examples
include
Unbalance on normal speed machines
Misalignment on normal speed machines
Instrument Setup for Time Waveform

The key to successful analysis of time waveform data is in the set up of the
instrument. The following items have to be considered when setting up the

instrument.
Unit of measurement
Time period sampled
Resolution
Averaging
Windows
Units of Measurement(1)
Amplitude measurement units should be generally selected based upon the

frequencies of interest. The plots below illustrate how measurement unit selection
affects the data displayed. Each plot contains 3 separate frequency components of
60Hz, 300Hz, and 950 Hz.
This data was taken using displacement

note how the lower frequency at 60 Hz is
accentuated.
Units of Measurement(2)
The same data is now displayed using velocity note
how the 300Hz component is more apparent.
The same data is now displayed using acceleration
note how the large lower frequency component is
diminished and the higher frequency component
accentuated.
The unit of measurement displayed in time
waveform data should be the natural unit of the
transducer used. For example if a displacement
reading is required, then a displacement transducer
should be used. In most cases where modern data
collectors are employed this means that acceleration
will be the unit of choice. If data is gathered from
non-contact probes on sleeve bearing machines
displacement is usually used.
Time Period Sampled(1)
The appropriate FMAX and Total Sample Period can be calculated

by the following formula:
FMAX [CPM] = Lines of Resolution x RPM

# Of Revolutions desired
Total sample period [seconds] = 60 x # of revolutions desired

RPM
Time Period Sampled(2)
Resolution: For time waveform analysis it is recommended that 1600 lines

(4096 samples are used).
Averaging: In most data collectors averaging is performed during the FFT

process. Unless synchronous time averaging is invoked the time waveform
presented on the screen will be the last average taken even if multiple
averages are selected in the instrument setup. It is normal therefore to take a
single average.
Windows: Various windows can be applied to the time waveform prior to

performing the FFT. The purpose of these windows is to shape the spectrum
and minimize leakage errors. Some instruments can apply these windows to
time waveform data as well. This would force the data to zero at the start and
end of the time sample potentially losing data. To eliminate this effect a uniform
or rectangular window should be applied.
Interpretation of Waveform Data(1)
The classic sine wave illustrated below is rarely seen in acceleration time waveform.
This is because acceleration emphasizes the higher frequency components that are
almost always present in the vibration signal. This de-emphasizes the underlying lower
frequency signal.
Unbalance
The waveform below is more representative of sinusoidal vibration when viewed in

acceleration. Note the high frequency components superimposed on the lower
frequency.

Misalignment
Although the classic symptoms of misalignment are M and W shapes in the time
waveform, these symptoms cannot be relied upon. The relative phase angle between
the 1 x RPM and 2 x RPM components determines the shape or pattern of the plot.
The pattern above illustrates the classic pattern of misalignment.
In the pattern below the relative phase between 1 x RPM and 2 x RPM was changed 90
degrees resulting in a very different pattern.
The pattern below originates when the 1 x, & 2 x, vibrations are 0 degrees apart.

Amplitude Symmetry
When observing time waveform data symmetry above and below the centerline
axis is important. Symmetrical data indicates that the machine motion is even on
each side of the center position. Non-symmetrical time waveform data indicates
the motion is constrained possibly by misalignment, or rubs.
This waveform pattern is symmetrical above and below the zero line.
The following waveform pattern is non-symmetrical above and below the zero line. The
amplitudes below the line are significantly higher than those above the line. In this case
a misalignment condition was the source. The markers on the plot indicate 1 x RPM.

Symmetry of the Time Axis
When the previous time waveform is observed with 1 x RPM markers present it can be
noted that the waveform pattern although complex is repetitive with 1 x RPM. This
indicates that the vibration is synchronous to RPM.
The waveform pattern below indicates a non-repetitive pattern characteristic of nonsynchronous vibration.
This example, is of two frequency sources that are not harmonically related. (58 Hz and
120 Hz) This is the kind of signal that could be created when a 2-pole motor has an
electrical hum problem.
It can be seen that the higher frequency wave does not always start at the same part of
the lower frequency cycle and therefore appears to ride on the other wave causing
symmetry to be lost. Care must be exercised when determining symmetry of the time
axis. 1 x RPM markers are available in most software programs and should be used to
avoid confusion.
At first glance this waveform appears to have large impacts occurring with somewhat
similar spacing. The horizontal axis is scaled in time units.
By using RPM as the horizontal axis and applying 1 x RPM markers the major impacts
can be seen to be occurring at approximately the same part of the revolution. However
closer inspection reveals that the spacing is not exactly synchronous In this case the
problem was a single large defect on the inner race of a bearing. The change in
amplitude of the defect was due to the defect coming in and out of the load zone.
This is the FFT taken from the above machine note the highest amplitude at BPFI is
< 0.05 ips! (15g pk @ BPFI = 2.13 ips).

Beats & Modulation effects
Another excellent application for time waveform is the observation of beat frequencies
and modulation effects. Often these phenomena are audible. The time span for data
collection should be set to capture 4-5 cycles of the beat.
The time period between the beats on the above waveform is 0.5 s. From this information
the frequency of the beat is calculated at 120 CPM.
This represents the frequency
difference between the two source frequencies In this case the beat was caused by
interaction between a 2 X RPM vibration source and a 2 x fL vibration source on an
induction motor.

Impacts
When the FFT process is applied to a signal that contains impacts the true
amplitude of the vibration is often greatly diminished. The following time waveform
was taken from an 1800 RPM machine. It shows several random impacts with
magnitudes over 6 g pk. The cause of this signal was a failed rolling element
bearing. The shape of the waveform often appears to be a large spike followed by a
ring down.
The plot below was a velocity spectrum taken from the same bearing note the
amplitude of vibration is less than 0.04 ips.
Care must be exercised when

assessing the amplitude severity of
1 x RPM impact vibration using
spectrum. This is the spectrum of a
machine with where the key is
impacting the coupling guard. The
amplitude
scale
indicates
amplitudes of less than 0.02 ips.
This is the time waveform from

the
above
amplitude
machine
of
the
the
impacts
exceeds 0.15 ips.
In this case severe damage had

occurred to the key and shaft of
the machine in question.
Waveform Analysis(1)
In conclusion, how is this information practically applied in a condition based

maintenance program.
Time waveform analysis is an analysis tool. It would not recommend that it be taken on
all measurement locations on a regular basis. This would add significantly to the time
required and data storage requirements.
Use Time waveform for the following selected analysis situations to enhance FFT
information.
Low speed applications (less than 100 RPM).
Indication of true amplitude in situations where impacts occur such as

assessment of rolling element bearing defect severity.
Gears.
Sleeve bearing machines with X-Y probes (2 channel orbit analysis).
Looseness.
Rubs.
Beats
Impacts
Waveform Analysis(2)
Use an appropriate measurement unit
Rolling element bearings, gears, looseness, rubs, impacts acceleration
Sleeve bearing machine with x-y probesdisplacement
Initially set up to observe 6 10 revolutions of the shaft in question
Study the following symptoms in the waveform
Amplitude
Amplitude Symmetry
Time Symmetry (use RPM markers)
Beats / Modulation
Impacts (shape and amplitude)
Remember use time waveform to ENHANCE not REPLACE spectral data.
Crest Factor
Introduction
The Crest Factor is equal to the peak amplitude of a waveform divided by the RMS value. The
purpose of the crest factor calculation is to give an analyst a quick idea of how much impacting
is occurring in a waveform. Impacting is often associated with roller bearing wear, Cavitation and
gear tooth wear.
In a perfect sine wave, with an amplitude of 1, the RMS value is equal to .707, and the crest factor
is then equal to 1.41. A perfect sine wave contains no impacting and therefore crest factors with a
value higher than 1.41 imply that there is some degree of impacting.
Crest Factor
The Problem with the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
The definition of the Fast Fourier Transform implies that any signal can be approximated by
the sum of a set of sine waves. Unfortunately, this doesnt work so well when one has a signal
that consists of non-periodic events, impacts or random noise . Both impacts and random
noise appear the same in the spectrum although they mean different things in the context of
machinery vibration analysis. The crest factor is therefore useful in giving the analyst a quick
idea of what is occurring in the time waveform.
Crest Factor
Comparison of 2 Waveforms
In below figures we can see an example of the use of the Crest Factor. The waveform in figure
on left has a crest factor of 3.01. The waveform in figure on right has a crest factor of 1.61.
The data in figure on left represents a machine with serious rolling element bearing wear, and
the crest factor is relatively high due to the amount of impacting occurring within the bearing.
The data in figure on right represents a machine with an unbalance, but no impacting related to
bearing wear.
Crest Factor
Conclusion
The Crest Factor is a quick and useful calculation that gives the analyst an idea of how
much impacting is occurring in a time waveform. This is useful information that is lost if
one is only viewing a spectrum as the FFT cannot differentiate between impacting and
random noise. Impacting in a time waveform may indicate rolling element bearing wear,
gear tooth wear or Cavitation. Quite often, the Crest Factor is trended over time in order
to see if the amount of impacting is increasing or not.

Data Acquistion Principles

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Training Course on Vibration

VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Choosing Your Instrumentation

What do you want to achieve?

Person power? Knowledge level?

Number of machines to be monitored?

Type of machines to be monitored?

Overall Level Meters

Quick Check Analyzers

FFT Data Collector/ Analyzers

Full Feature Analyzers

Real Time Spectrum Analyzers

Instrument Quality Tape Recorders

Dedicated Balancing instruments

Data Acquisition System

Data Acquisition System

The Data Acquisition Hardware comprising

Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to

Table: Transducer Characteristics

Vibration Transducer Types

Relative:- Shaft relative to bearing.

Absolute:- Shaft relative to space.

Displacement Probes (non-contact, eddy

Self Generating no power supply required

Piezoelectric Velocity Pickup

Remember everything that

No moving parts, no wear.

Very large dynamic range.

Wide frequency range.

Compact, often low weight.

Can be mounted in any orientation.

Measures casing vibration

Measures absolute vibration

Large range of frequency response

Available in many configurations

Inverted Compression Type

Compression type accelerometer

Compression Type Accelerometers

Inverted compression type

Mounting stud receptacle

Shear Type Accelerometer

Advantages - Shear Type

Typical Accelerometer Frequency

Frequency Response & Mounting

Frequency Response & Mounting

Frequency Response & Mounting

Frequency Range, Sensitivity &

What is the fault frequency you are looking

Useful Frequency Range

Non-contact Eddy Current Probe (Relative)

Non-contact Eddy Current Displacement

Relative Shaft Vibration.

Radial & axial shaft position.

Differential expansion between case and rotor.

Especially effective on machinery with high mass rigid casings

N.C.P Problems & precautions

Only Measures Displacement - Sensitive

Subject to Mechanical and Electrical Runout .

Units must be pre calibrated for specific

Shaft Contact Displacement Probes

Measures vibration amplitude &

PICKUP MOUNTING STUD