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nd

specialises in 2
Stephen Krashen:
n&
language acquisitio
n- English &
development no
bilingual

Krashen

Theory of Language

Reject grammar being central part of lang in fact


gramm structure not require explicit analysis/explanation
by lang teacher, learner or teaching materials.
Communication as main function: eg of communicative
approach
No emphasis on theory of language at all some say
there is none such as Gregg,1984.
Main focus vocabulary lexicon used to send messages
grammar is a by-product
Although they say they it is communicative, similar to
audiolinguists in that they see learning occurring in
stages.

Led to collaboration Krashen & Terrell (Tracy,


Spanish teacher in California -1977; 1982 The
Natural Approach).
Wanted language to be learned along more
naturalistic principles of lang acqn. Using Krashens
theories, The Natural Approach published in 1983
lang acqn Krashen, procedures Terrell.
Emphasis is on:
exposure/input not practice
making ss emotionally prepared to learn
allowing ss to listen before production
need to use written & other sources for input

5 main hypotheses

acquisition-learning
monitor
natural order
input
affective filter

Acquisition learning - 2 independent


systems of language: acquired & learned.
Acquisition

Learning

Product of subconscious
Similar to childrens acqn
Needs natural communication
in target lang
Informal situations
Depends on attitude
Uses grammatical feel

Product of formal learning


Conscious knowledge of e.g.
grammar etc
Not as NB as acqn
Formal situations
Depends on aptitude
Uses grammatical rules

Monitor
Relationship between these 2
aspects of a learner.
Monitor part of the learner corrects
errors or makes speech more
acceptable.
Can only happen if the learner has
enough time to think, if they focus on
what is correct and if the rule is
known to them.

Natural Order

Research findings by Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman,


1975; Makino, 1980 show grammar structures
seem to be acquired in a natural order.
So some structures are acquired early & some late.
Findings show that the learners L1, age,
background or how they learned the language
make no difference to this.
However, according to Krashen, syllabuses should
not be designed in a manner which takes this order
into account. In fact, it should not be this way at
all.

Input
How he tries to explain how the learner acquires the new
language.
Learner acquires language in this way, not learns it
Input needs to be slightly higher than the learners level
So natural communicative input is essential
comprehensible input with this go 2 further hypotheses:
1) speaking is a result of acquisition & NOT its
cause
2) if input is understood, and there is enough
of it, the necessary grammar is
automatically provided
(Krashen, 1985, p2)

Affective Filter

affective variables play a


role in 2nd lang acqn
Motivation, self-confidence &
anxiety affects the mental
block or willingness of the
acqn- impede lang acqn

Evidence for Input hypothesis:


(Krashen, 1985a)

People speak to children acquiring 1st lang in certain ways


People speak to L2 learners in certain ways
L2 learners often go through an early Silent Period
Difference in lang acqn success reflected in younger/older
learners from comprehensible input
The more comprehensible input, more L2 proficiency
Opposite goes for lack of comp. input
Teaching methods are dependent on comprehensible input
Immersion teaching works as the input is comprehensible
For bilingual programs to be successful, comp. input is nec.

5 hypotheses have implications for lang teaching:

Present as much comprehensible input as


poss
Things that help comprehension are NB
such as pics/realia- exposure to wider
lexicon
Focus should be on reading & listening
speaking comes later when ss ready
For a lower filter to work, class needs to be
relaxed & ss should focus on meaningful
communication

Syllabus

See course organisation from 2 perspectives:


1)Some general goals of most courses 4 areas:
basic personal communication skills: oral e.g.
listening to announcements in public spaces
basic personal communication skills: written eg
reading & writing personal letters
Academic learning skills: oral eg. Listening to a
lecture
Academic learning skills: written eg taking
notes in class

But Natural Approach focuses


mainly on basic communication
skills.
2nd perspective is that the purpose
of a language course will vary
according to needs of the students
and their particular interests
Krashen & Terrell 1983:65.

BUT how do you do


this for all the ss?
Needs differ so list of
topics understood as
suggestions not set.

Types of learning & teaching activities:

Focus on comprehensible input teacher talk focuses on


things in classroom & on pics & ss dont need to say
anything till feel ready less stress ( filter) , but do need
to reply to Ts commands & qns in other ways.
T talks slowly & clearly
Asks qns 1 word answers
Charts/ pics/maps/ realia focal point for qns, then when ss
able, talk about other ss
Pair/group, followed by whole class activities
Techniques often borrowed from other methods & adapted
to suit their needs: such as Command-based Acts from
Total Physical Response; Direct Method mime, gesture,
context; CLT group-work

Nothing really new, but the way


they use them & the
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT,
classroom env. that helps with
learner anxiety and helps to
increase learner confidence.

Learner roles:

Learners trying to acquire lang, not learn it in usual way.


Slightly more difficult input is given than at level, but by
context & extralinguistic info, can understand.
Learners roles change depending on level and a major aspect
is the learner deciding when to speak, what to speak about &
what lang to use when speaking.
3 phases: 1) pre-production: no response but participate by
eg pointing
2) early-production: either/or qns, single words,
short phrases, fill in charts, use fixed
conversational patterns eg How are you?
3) speech-emergent: role-play, games, personal
info, opinions, group problem solving
( Krashen & Terrell, 1983:76)

Learners have 4 responsibilities:

Give info on their goals so that topics & situations


can be comp. input
Take an active role in comp. input.: learn & use
conversational man. techniques
Decide when to start using speech & what grade to
use
Where learning exercises such as grammar are a part
of program, decide with teacher how much time to
spend on them & try to do & check by themselves.
PROBLEM Ls need to comm. with other Ls, so may
not get good comp.input slightly above their level
they (K&T) are aware of this, but give no solutions.

Teacher Roles:
3 main roles
Main source of comprehensible input constant
flow of lang nec plus non-linguistic clues to
meaning so very teacher-centred
Atmosphere friendly, interesting, allowing a
low affective filter. This is achieved through not
expecting production of speech, int topics & not
correcting errors
Materials need to be of a high standard, very
varied & interesting, based not just on what T
thinks is nec, but also on ss needs & interests.

Materials
Primary goal of materials to make classroom
activities as meaningful as possible by giving
the extralinguistic context that helps the
acquirer to understand and thereby to
acquire (Krashen & Terrell, 1983:55).
Thus REALIA are of paramount NB, and not
textbooks.
So pictures, visual aids, schedules,
brochures, ads, maps, simple books, games.
Thus a lot of work for the teacher!!

Dialogues
Pairwork interviews with personal info
Personal charts & tables
Preference ranking opinion polls
Giving personal info about self
Using imagination
Problem-solving activities
Games
Content activities such as academic
subject matter

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (18961934) University of Moscow- teacher


of literature but led to
developmental psychology,
education and psychopathology.
influence on Krashens second
language acquisition theory
application of their theories to
second language teaching produces
similarities.

Krashen's input hypothesis similar to Vygotsky's


concept of zone of proximal development.
According to the input hypothesis, language
acquisition takes place during human interaction
in an environment of the foreign language when
the learner receives language 'input' that is one
step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic
competence.
For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then
maximum acquisition takes place when he/she is
exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to
level 'i + 1'.
Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis influenced by Vygotsky.

Vygotsky speaks of internalization of


language, Krashen uses the term
language acquisition, both based on
a common assumption: interaction.
Lang acq defined by Krashen & NB
in achieving proficiency is parallel of
Vygotsky's view of cognitive
development of the person's social
history and being a product of it.

Lots of opposition to these ideas


Krashen under pressure from bilingualists
bilingual teaching following his approach is
considered by many to be controversial.
Other linguists, such as Michael Long, do not
agree with Krashen that language acquired
through acqn & not learning is better.
Reasonsformal teaching seems to be better
for the learner in the long run.
Although through formal instruction, Ls seem to
make more errors initially, they do get better.
For naturalistic learners, these errors are still
evident much later on.

As to the question of which


type allows you to learn a
language faster, hhhmmmm?
Does a person who received
formal instruction in a
language go further in the
long run ?? Long feels the
answer is yes (1987).

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