ADVANCE

CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY (CV402)

Chapter 6
Earthquake Resistant Buildings

Outline
Planning
Construction of walls
Provision of corner reinforcement
Construction of beams and columns
Base isolation

Introduction
The sudden shaking or movement of earths crust caused due
to disturbances occurring inside the earth.
Earth is disturbed, vibrations are produced.
Vibrations set out in all directions from their origin.
The vibrations are more intense near the source
As the distance increases, these become feeble and slowly
die out.

Structure of Earth

Structure of Earth

Earthquake Resistant Construction

1. Good structural configuration
2. Lateral strength
3. Ductility
4. Deformability
5. Damageability

Earthquake Resistant
Construction

Properties of construction for better seismic performance

1. Good structural configuration
2. Lateral strength
3. Ductility
4. Deformability
5. Damageability

Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant

Design of Structures
Sr no.

I.S. Code No.

Title of code

IS1893 (part 1).

2002

Indian Standard Criteria for Earth quake

Resistant Design of Structures.( 5th revision)

IS 4326, 1993

Indian Standard Code of Practice for

Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction
of Buildings (2nd revision)

IS 13827, 1993

Indian Standard Guidelines for improving

Earthquake Resistance of Earthen Buildings

IS 13828, 1993

Indian Standard Guidelines for improving

Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength of
Masonry Building

IS 13920, 1993

Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile

detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structure
Subjected to Seismic Forces

IS 13935, 1993

Indian Standard Guidelines for Repair and

Seismic Strengthening of Buildings

Zoning of earthquake as per Indian

Standards

Sr No

Zone no.

Possibility of
Earthquake

Zone- 1

No risk

Zone 2

Very low risk

Zone 3

Moderate risk

Zone 4

High risk

Zone 5

Very high risk

Effects of Earthquake forces on

Buildings
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground
Building resting on the ground will experience motion at
its base.
From Newton's first law of motion even though the base
of the building moves with the ground, the roof has a
tendency to stay in its original position.
Since the wall and columns are connected to it, they drag
the roof along with them.
This gives the inertia forces on the roof element .
If the roof has mass M and experience an acceleration a,
then the inertial force F1 will be equal to M.a and its
direction will be opposite of that of acceleration.

Effects of Earthquake forces on Buildings

Lighter building sustain the earthquake shaking better.
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground in all the
directions along two horizontal direction ( x and y) and
one vertical direction (z, say).
All structures are primarily designed to carry the gravity
loads, i.e. they are designed for a force equal to mass M
(this includes mass due to own weight and imposed
loads) times the g acting in the vertically downward
direction (z).
The downward force Mg is called gravity load.

Earthquake Resistant Buildings:

Planning Approach
1. Lightness

Earthquake force depends on mass of the structure

If the structure is heavy the inertia force acting is more
Collapse of theses structures results in heavier damage
and loss of lives
Building must be as light as possible

Earthquake Resistant Buildings: Planning

Approach

2. Plan of Building
(a) Symmetry

Building as a whole or its various blocks should be kept

symmetrical about both the axis
The asymmetrical buildings are subjected to twist or
torsion during earthquakes.
The twist make different portions at the same floor level
to move horizontally by different amounts. This causes
more damage.

Earthquake Resistant Buildings: Planning

Approach

2. Plan of Building
b) Simplicity and Regularity

Simple rectangular plan

Simple shapes of building behave better during
earthquake than the complex shapes like L, T, E and U.
Separation of a large building in to smaller blocks can
lead to symmetry and regularity
c) Size of the building
The length of the building should not be more than three
times its width
If longer lengths are needed, two separate blocks with
separation should be provided

2. Plan of Building

Earthquake Resistant Buildings: Design

Approach
C. Opening in

walls

Earthquake Resistant Buildings: Design

Approach
C. Opening in

walls

Sl
no

Position of opening

Details of openings for building

category
A and B

D and E

Distance b5 from the inside corner of

Zero mm
outside wall, minimum

230
mm

450 mm

For total length of openings, the

ratio [(b1 + b2 + b3) / l1] or [(b6 + b7) /
l2] shall not exceed
(a) One storeyed building
(b) Two storeyed building
(c) 3 or 4 storeyed building

0.60
0.50
0.42

0.50
0.46
0.37

0.50
0.42
0.33

Pier width between consecutive

opening b4, minimum

340 mm

450
mm

560 mm

Vertical distance between two

openings one above the other h3,
minimum

600 mm

600
mm

600 mm

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

1. Horizontal reinforcement
a. Horizontal bands or ring beams
i. lintel band
ii. Plinth band
iii. Roof band
iv. Gable band
2. Dowel bars
3. Vertical reinforcement

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

1. Horizontal reinforcement
a. Horizontal bands or ring beams
i. Lintel band
Provided at lintel levels in all load bearing and all cross
walls
Must be provided in all storey's of building.
Lintel band ties all the walls together and resist out of
plane bending of the walls
Improves stability of walls during severe earthquake

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

1. Horizontal reinforcement
ii. Plinth band
This band should be provided, where the soil is soft or
uneven as in hilly areas.
Helps in reducing the differential settlement of building
as well as serves as damp proof course
This band is provided at plinth level of walls on the top
of the foundation wall. Its section is same as lintel band.

Strengthening Arrangements Recommended for

Masonry Buildings (Rectangular Masonay
Units)
Sl
no

Building
Category

Number of storeyes

Strengthening
to be provided
in all storeyes

(i) 1 to 3
(ii) 4

a, b, c, f, g
a, b, c, d, f, g

(i) 1 and 2
(ii) 3 and 4

a, b, c, f, g
a to g

(i) 1 and 2
(ii) 3 and 4

a to g
a to h

(i) 1 to 3 (4th storey is

not allowed in this
category)

a masonry mortar
b lintel band
c roof band and gable band where necessary
d vertical steel at corners and junction of the walls
e vertical steel at jambs of opening
f bracing in plan at tie level of roofs
g plinth band where necessary
h dowel bars

a to h

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls
1. Horizontal reinforcement
iii. Roof band

Provided immediately below the roofs or floors.

Improves the resistance against diaphragm failure

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

1. Horizontal reinforcement
iv. Gable band
Is provided at the top of gable masonry below the
purlins.
This band shall be made continuous with the roof band
at eaves level
This band resists out of plane failure of gable walls
The band should be made of RCC of grade not less than
M 15 or reinforced brick work of CM not lesser than
1:3
The band should be of the full width of the wall
The depth of the band should not be less than 75 mm
and reinforced with steel bars at least 2 Nos. of 8 mm
dia or 10 mm dia longitudinal bars with 6 mm dia lateral

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

1. Horizontal reinforcement
iv. Gable band
In case of reinforced brick work, the thickness of joints
containing steel bars shall be increased so as to have a
minimum mortar cover of 10 mm around the bar
In bands of reinforced brick work, the area of steel
provided should be equal to that for reinforced concrete
bars

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls
2. Dowel bars

Provided at corners and T junctions of walls at the sill

level of windows to a length of 900 mm in form of U
stirrups of 8 mm dia
Bars must be laid in CM 1:3 with a minimum cover of
10 mm

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls
No. of
storeyes

Storey

One

Diameter of HYSD single bar in mm at

each critical section
Category
B

Categor
C

Category
D

Category
E

Nil

Nil

10

12

Two

Top
Bottom

Nil
Nil

Nil
Nil

10
12

12
16

Three

Top
Middle
Bottom

Nil
Nil
Nil

10
10
12

10
12
12

12
16
16

Four

Top
Third
Second
bottom

10
10
10
12

10
10
12
12

10
12
16
20

Not
permitted

Construction methods / measures for

improvement of masonry walls

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
i. Grout
It is a mixture of water, cement and sand.
It may also consists of optional materials like water
reducing admixtures, expansion agents and pozzolans.
The water to cement ratio is around 0.5. fine sand is
used to avoid segregation.
The desirable properties of grout are as follows:
Durable
Minimum segregation
Low shrinkage
Adequate strength after hardening
Good bond with the substrate

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
ii. Epoxy Resins
To bond plastic concrete to a hardened concrete surface
To bond two rigid materials
For patch work
For applying a coating over concrete surface to give
colour, resistance to penetration of water and chemicals
and resistance to abrasion.
Low viscosity resins can be injected into small cracks
High viscosity resins are used as coating and for filling
larger openings or holes.

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
iii. Epoxy Mortar
It is made using epoxy resin, sand, cement and water.
Added as additional binder
It has high compressive strength, high tensile strength
and low modulus of elasticity
Polymer particles join and form chain link
reinforcement, increasing the tensile strength of mortar
There is greater plasticity and reduction in shrinkage
stress

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
iv. Quick setting cement mortars
Classification
Unmodified cementitious
Polymer or epoxy resin based
Polymer modified
Cement / pozzolanic modified

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
v. Shotcrete
Pneumatically applied mixture of cement, aggregate,
and water conveyed through a hose and projected at
high velocity onto the application surface.
Bridges / Dams, Sewer, Sanitary, Storm (Culverts /
Basins), Headwalls / Wing Walls, Piers / Docks,
Ditches, Retaining Walls
Wet mix Shotcrete - in which all of the ingredients,
except accelerator, are mixed before introduction into
the delivery hose.
Dry mix shotcrete - Pre mix blend of dry cement and
aggregate is propelled through a hose by compressed air
to a nozzle.

Typical Application of Shotcrete

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
vi. Micro concrete:
Ready made formulations are tailored to form concrete.
Can be pumped or poured into restricted locations
Flow able mortar hence does not require compaction
Gaseous expansion system compensates for shrinkage
and settlement in the plastic state
Develops high initial and ultimate final strengths
Offers excellent resistance to moisture ingress
Makes repaired sections highly durable
Can be applied at 100 mm thickness at one stroke
Contains no chloride admixture
Rapid strength gain to facilitate early reinstatement

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
vii. Fiber reinforced concrete :
Has better tensile strength compared to conventional
concrete
Improved ductility and durability
viii. Fiber reinforced polymers :
Made up of polymer matrix and fibers
Fibers glass, carbon or aramid
Possess high strength to weight ratios, high fatigue
strength, high wear resistance, vibration absorption
capacity, dimensional stability and corrosion resistance.
Manufactured in long length of pultrusion process

Selection of Materials and Proportion of Mortar

for Earthquake Prone Structures

Repair materials
ix. Ferro cement
It is constructed of cement mortar reinforced with
closely spaced layers of small diameter wire mesh
Mesh may be made of steel
Mortar may contain discontinuous fibers
Use of Ferro cement can be economical

REPAIR, RESTORATION AND RETROFITTING

Repair
Patching up the defects in plaster
Re-plastering of wall
Repairing doors and windows, replacement of glass
panes
Repairing electric connection, gas connection
Repairing plumbing, heating connection
Rebuilding non structural walls, chimneys, boundary
walls etc.
Relaying damaged flooring
Repairing roofing sheets or tiles etc.
Redecorating work, i.e, white washing, colour washing,
pointing

REPAIR, RESTORATION AND RETROFITTING

Restoration
Structural repairs for restoring the lost strength of
structural elements
Removal of portion of cracked masonry walls, piers etc
Rebuilding of removed portion with rich shrinkage
mortar.
Providing reinforcing wire mesh on both faces of
cracked wall
Inject neat cement slurry or epoxy material in walls,
columns, beams, etc

REPAIR, RESTORATION AND RETROFITTING

Retrofitting
Retrofitting is the seismic strengthening carried out to
upgrade the seismic resistance of a damaged building
Modification of existing building
Strengthening of floor
Modification of floor
Modification of plan
Strengthening of wall with provision of horizontal and
vertical seismic band as per IS 4326
Adding section of beam or column using jacketting or
casing
Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions
by increasing column and wall areas or the number of
walls and columns.

Methods of repairing and retrofication of

earthquake damaged structure
Repairs of minor and medium cracks
Even fine cracks in load bearing members which are
unreinforced, like masonry and plain concrete reduce
their resistance very largely.
All cracks must be located and marked carefully
Critical ones fully repaired either by injecting strong
cement or chemical grout or by providing external
bandage.

Methods of repairing and retrofication of

earthquake damaged structure
Repairs of minor and medium cracks
If the cracks are reasonably small (opening width = 0.075
cm), the technique to restore the original tensile strength of
the cracked element is by pressure injection of epoxy.
The external surfaces are cleaned of non-structural materials
plastic injection ports are placed along the surface of the
cracks on both sides of the member and are secured in place
with an epoxy sealant.
The centre to centre spacing of these ports may be
approximately equal to the thickness of the element.
After the sealant has cured, a low viscosity epoxy resin is
injected into one port at a time, beginning at the lowest part
of the crack in case it is vertical or at one end of the crack in
case it is horizontal.

Methods of repairing and retrofication of

earthquake damaged structure
Repairs of minor and medium cracks
The resin is injected till it is seen flowing from the opposite
sides of the member
The smaller the crack, higher is the pressure or
more closely spaced ports to obtain complete penetration of
the epoxy material throughout the depth and width of
member.
Larger cracks will permit larger port spacing, depending
upon width of the member.
This technique is appropriate for all types of structural
elements beams, columns, walls and floor units in masonry
as well as concrete structures.

Methods of repairing and retrofication of

earthquake damaged structure

Large cracks and crushed concrete

For cracks wider than about 6 mm or for regions in which the
concrete or masonry has crushed, a treatment other than
injection is indicated.
The following procedure may be adopted.
The loose material is removed and replaced with any of the
materials mentioned earlier, i.e., expansive cement mortar,
quick setting cement or gypsum cement mortar
Where found necessary, additional shear or flexural
reinforcement is provided in the region of repairs. This
reinforcement could be covered by mortar to give further
strength as well as protection to the reinforcement
In areas of very severe damage, replacement of the member
or portion of member can be carried out
In the case of damage to walls and floor diaphragms, steel
mesh could be provided on the outside of the surface and
nailed or bolted to the wall.

Large Cracks and Crushed Concrete

Large cracks and crushed concrete

For cracks wider than about 6 mm or for regions in which the
concrete or masonry has crushed, a treatment other than
injection is indicated.
The following procedure may be adopted.
The loose material is removed and replaced with any of the
materials mentioned earlier, i.e., expansive cement mortar,
quick setting cement or gypsum cement mortar
Where found necessary, additional shear or flexural
reinforcement is provided in the region of repairs. This
reinforcement could be covered by mortar to give further
strength as well as protection to the reinforcement
In areas of very severe damage, replacement of the member
or portion of member can be carried out
In the case of damage to walls and floor diaphragms, steel
mesh could be provided on the outside of the surface and
nailed or bolted to the wall.

Installing Ferro- Cement plate

The plaster on both sides of the wall is removed the

mortar joints are scratched out up to 15- 20mm depth
surface is cleaned and wet with water and a coat of
cement slurry or polymer enhanced cement slurry is
applied
A 10 mm thick coat of cement sand plaster (1:3
cement:coarse sand) or 1:1.5:3 micro concrete is applied.
The surface of the plaster is roughened to have good
bond with the second coat.
Welded wire mesh is fixed on the surface of plaster/micro
concrete using 150 mm long nails. The wire mesh and
nails are galvanized to protect them from corrosion.

Installing Ferro- Cement plate

Alternatively the wire mesh on the two sides of the wall

can be anchored together using 3 mm galvanized wire or
J bolts passing through holes drilled in the wall.
The anchors are used at every 450 mm. After clamping
the wire mesh on the two sides of wall, the wires/bolts
are grouted in the holes
After fixing the wire mesh, second coat of plaster or
micro-concrete (16-20 mm thick) is applied.

Strengthening Long Walls

Masonry walls are weak in out of plane action. Large

unsupported lengths and heights need to be supported
laterally.
These supports can be provided either by cross walls or
by buttresses.
The cross walls and buttresses need to be properly
connected with the existing wall.
Figure shows the details of connecting a buttress with an
existing wall
Fig shows the details of connecting a new masonry wall
with existing rubble tone masonry.

Strengthening Long Walls

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Members

Columns:
Reinforced concrete columns can best be strengthened by
casing
That is by providing additional cage of longitudinal and
lateral tie reinforcement around the columns and casting
a concrete ring .
The desired strength and ductility can thus be built-up.

1. Existing section
2. New added section

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Members
Beams
A reinforced concrete beam can be encased as shown in
Figure A .
For holding the stirr-up in this case, holes will have to be
drilled through the slab.
Alternatively it can be jacketed as shown in Figure B,
and Figure C wherein holes will need to drilled through
web of existing beam for the new stirrups.
Desired quantity of longitudinal and transverse steel may
be added in each case.
Reinforced concrete beams can also be strengthened by
applying prestress to it so that opposite moments are
caused to those applied.

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Members
Beams
The wires will run on both sides of the web outside and
anchored against the end of the beam through a steel
plate.
Loss of pre-stress due to creep relation and temperature
fall shall be duly considered.

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Members
Strengthening of Foundations
Strengthening of foundations before or after the earthquake
is the most involved task since it may require careful under
pinning operations.
Introducing new load bearing members including
foundations to relieve the already loaded members.
Jacking operations may be needed in this process.
Improving the drainage of the area to prevent saturation
of foundation soil to obviate any problems of
liquefaction, which may occur because of poor drainage.
Providing apron around the building to prevent soaking
of foundation directly and draining off the water.

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Members
Strengthening of Foundations
Adding strong elements in the form of reinforced
concrete strips attached to the existing foundation part of
the building.
These will also bind the various wall footings and may be
provided on both sides of the wall (Figure A) or only one
side of it.

Strengthening Reinforced Concrete

Members
Strengthening of Foundations