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Training principles, methods of

training and exercise


physiology knowledge for
application in physical therapi.
Oleh: Slamet Sumarmo.M.Fis.

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Improving performance
in a physical activity
Program latihan efektif untuk meningkatkan
kemampuan kerja tubuh
Banyak komponen yg terlibat dalam program
peningkatan kemampuan kerja tubuh:

Sarana prasarana, methode,


kemampuan awala, minat,waktu
dsb.
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What is our focus in this


module

Training principles
Methods of training
Exercise physiology
Banyak komponen yg relevan terhadap
ketrampilan biophysical aspek dari segi:
anatomi, biomekanik, fisiologi OR
termasuk kultur sehingga dipilih 3 hal
pokok saja : prinsip, tehnik dan pengaruh
fisiologi
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Training Principles
Latihan memenuhisyarat: sarana prasarana,
sistematis, proses dll untuk meningkatkan
kapasitas kerja tubuh.
Latihan proses jangka panjang secara individual
dalam mencapai tujuan.
Latihan yg terprogram khusus juga mempunyai
pengaruh umum.
Latihan adalah proses membangun tubuh akibat
stimulasi/rangsang secara teratur dan terukur.
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Training Principles
Bilamana mereka melakukan latihan, mereka
melakukan latihan khusus berpengaruh terhadapa
sel sampai jaringan daan tubuh dengan
peningkatan kerja sel dan kebutuhan sel
meningkat.seperti air, mineral dan makanan
bahkan sisa metabolism juga meningkat. Setelah
selesai latihan yang lansung dirasakan bukan
kekuatan, daya tahan yang meningkat tetapi justru
kelelahan yg tergantungbeban latihan.respon ?

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Specificity
The specific nature of a training produces
its own specific response and adaptations.
The training must be specific to both the
individual and the demands of their
sport/activity.
Training should use specific patterns of
joint and muscle coordination that are
used in the sport/activity.
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Specificity
Specific components of fitness that are
used in the sport/activity should be
trained.
The programme should also use the
specific energy system/s that are used in
the sport/activity.

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Health related fitness


components

Body Composition
Cardio-respiratory Endurance
Muscular Strength
Muscular Endurance
Flexibility
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Body Composition
Relativeamountsof
muscle,fat,bone,
andothervitalparts
ofthebody. There
are three general
classifications of
body type.

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Endomorphs:
Endomorphs: A predominantly
endomorphic individual typically has
short arms and legs, as well as a large
amount of mass on their shorter than
normal frame. This hampers their ability
to compete in sports requiring high levels
of agility or speed. Sports of pure
strength, like power lifting, are perfect for
an endomorph. http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm
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Mesomorphs
Mesomorphs: A predominantly
mesomorphic individual excels in
strength, agility, and speed sports. Their
medium structure and height, along with
their tendency to gain muscle and
strength easily makes them a strong
candidate for a top athlete in any sport.
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm
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Ectomorphs
Ectomorphs: A predominantly endomorphic
individual is long, slender and thin, and
therefore power and strength sports are
almost totally out of the question. Their slight
build also leaves them susceptible to injuries.
While they can easily get lean and hard, their
lack of musculature severely limits their
chances in sports requiring mass. Typically,
Ectomorphs dominate endurance sports.

http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm

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Cardio-respiratory
Endurance
Theabilityofthe
circulatoryand
respiratorysystems
tosupplyfuel
duringsustained
physicalactivity
andtoeliminate
fatigueproducts
aftersupplyingfuel.
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Muscular Strength
Muscularstrength
istheabilityofa
muscletoexert
force.Strengthis
measuredbythe
maximalamountof
resistanceorforce
thatcanbe
sustainedinone
singleeffort.
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Muscular Endurance
Muscular
Enduranceisthe
amountofexternal
forcethatamuscle
canexertoveran
extendedperiodof
time.

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Flexibility
The absolute range of
movement in a joint or
series of joints that is
attainable in a
momentary effort with
the help of a partner or
a piece of equipment.
Flexibility is either
static (stationary) or
dynamic (moving).
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Skill related fitness


components

Power
Speed
Agility
Balance
Co-ordination
Reaction Time
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Power
Power is the amount
of work done or
energy transferred
per unit of time.
Muscular power is
the ability to use
strength quickly to
produce an explosive
effort.
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Speed
Speedrelatestothe
abilitytoperforma
movementwithina
shorttimeperiod.

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Agility
Agilityistheability
torapidlychange
thepositionofthe
entirebodyin
spacewithspeed
andaccuracy.

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Balance
Balance is the ability
to maintain
equilibrium while
static (stationary) or
dynamic (moving).

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Co-ordination
Co-ordination is the
ability for the bodys
senses, the nervous
system and muscles
to work together so
that specific
movements can be
performed smoothly
and accurately.
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Reaction time
The time it takes for
the body to react to a
stimulus.

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ENERGY SYSTEMS

DuringexerciseproductionofATPdependsupontheEnergySystem
beingused.Thisisinturndependentontheintensityanddurationof
theexercise:
ANAEROBIC / ATP-CP

ANAEROBIC / LACTIC ACID

(Anaerobic Glycolysis)
Very rapid

Rapid

Chemical fuel: PC
and protein
Very limited ATP
Production

AEROBIC

(Aerobic Glycolysis)

Slow
Food fuel: glycogen

Food fuels:glycogen,

fats,

Limited ATP production Unlimited ATP Prod.

Muscular stores limited By-product, lactic acid, No fatiguing by-prod.


causes muscular fatigue Produces H20, CO2, heat
Used with sprint or any Used with activities of Used with endurance or
High-power, short-duration
1 to 3 min duration.
Long-duration
activities.
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Activity up to 10secs
Approx 5mins+
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Adapted

from (VCE Physical Education Book 2-1999)

ATP

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Anaerobic glycolysis

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Aerobic Glycolysis

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Energy systems
There is a relationship between the
energy systems and the graph on the
next slide shows the overlap between the
systems. Highly trained athletes have
increased efficiency of each of the
energy systems and this enables a faster
transition between each energy system.
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Oxygen consumption

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Examples of the overlap


of energy systems
ATP-CPANAEROBIC

AEROBIC

EXAMPLES

100%

0%

0%

80%

20%

0%

60%

20%

20%

0% 20%

80%

0% 10%

90%

0%

5%

95%

0% 1%

99%

0% 0%

10%

Diving,jumps,throws
Basketball,baseball,fencing,judo
Figureskating,soccer,tennis
Slalomskiing,1500mrun,500mkayak
3000mrun,800mswim,5000mskate
10,000Mskate,10,000run
Roadcycling,biathlon,marathon
shooting,bowls,driving

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Specificity
Therefore when trying to improve
performance it is important to consider
training the relevant components of
fitness and energy systems. This will
differ according to the sport/physical
activity that you are training in your
programme.
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Adaptation
Oneimportantconsiderationinplanning
anexerciseprogramisthatconditioning
willoccuronlywithregularexercise
(frequency).Thisprincipalisreferredto
astheprincipleofadaptationwhich
meansthatonlyregularexercise
producesphysicalgains.Adaptation
dependsonchallengingthephysical
capabilitybeyondaminimumthreshold
level.
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Overload
Iftheappropriatetypeandamountof
activityisinexcessofthisthreshold
level,atrainingoverloadisincurredand
physiologicalgainusuallyoccurs.
Regularoverloadingcanleadto
increasedfunctionandthetraining
workloadneedstobeincreasedtoensure
overloadandprogresswhenthefitness
levelimproves.
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Progressive overload
Theprogressionrateatthestartofan
exerciseprogramneedstobegradualto
bestensurefitnessbenefits.Fitnessshould
improveonlywhentheappropriateamount
ofoverloadisprogressivelyincreased.This
principleisreferredtoastheprincipleof
progressiveoverload.Overloadcanbean
increaseinFrequency,Intensity,Distanceor
Time(duration).Toensureefficiencyonly
onevariableshouldbechangedatatime.

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Reversibility (detraining)
Whenexercisestopsthephysical
gainscanregresstopre-training
levels(regression/reversibility).
Aerobicendurancelossesarequicker
thanstrength(power)losses.
Basically,
Ifyoudontuseityouloseit.
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Overtraining/Retrogression
Retrogressionreferstoanexcessive
trainingoverloadwhere
improvementshaveslowed.
Retrogressioncanoccurwithhighly
intensesingleexercisebouts(acute
overload)overextendedtimeperiods.
Excessiveoverloadovertimeis
commonlyreferredtoaschronic
overload.
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Periodisation/training
year

The year can be divided into 12 months of


training. Obviously if the season is shorter, the
following principles are applied but over a
shorter time period. The first month is the
month immediately after the end of the season.
Usually the targeted or peak competition
concludes the sports season. Therefore, month
12 should be the peak competition, the
national championships, the regional
championship or the World Championships.
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Periodisation/training
year
The coach should decide on the peak
competition for each athlete and count
backwards to establish the number of the
relevant months of training. If the national
or world championships is the peak
competition and it is in September, then
October is month one. This program
divides the year into six main phases.
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Periodisation-example
Phase

Aim

Month

Recovery period

Active recovery

Month 1

Early preparation
period

General strength and


endurance

Months 2 and 3

Preparation period

Maximum strength and


general endurance

Months 4 and 5

Pre-Competition
period

Maximum strength and


specific endurance

Months 6 and 7

Early competition
period

Specific endurance and


sport technique

Months 8 and 9

Peak competition
period

Race/match prep and


peak performance

Months 10 through 12

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http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/articles/scni19a2.htm

F.I.T.T Principle

Frequency
Intensity
Time (duration)
Type (methods of training)

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Frequency
Frequency. Theminimumnumberof
workoutsforcardiorespiratoryimprovement
is3timesweeklywithnomorethantwo
daysbetweenexercisesessions.Youshould
graduallyprogressto5daysperweekas
yourfitnesslevelimproves.Thebenefitsof
exercisingbeyond5daysperweekcanbe
negatedbyanincreasedinjuryrisk.Ifyou
shouldexercisefivedaysperweek,itis
importanttolowerexerciseintensity.
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Frequency
To improve strength, power and speed
has an ideal frequency of 3-5 days per
week. Therefore it is important in
planning programmes to ensure you
know which components of fitness are
your focus to ensure gains can be made.

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Intensity
Training intensity refers to how hard each
training session will be. Intensity
measurement is dependant on the type
of training used. It can be measured by
heart rate or by resistance levels. We will
look at both of these separately.

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Time (duration)
Duration can be used for the length of a
training session or the length of a training
programme. The minimum length of a
training programme for improvement is 6
weeks. However, for real benefits to be
seen aerobic programmes should last for
12 weeks and anaerobic programmes
should last 8-10 weeks.
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Time (duration)
In terms of the length of sessions this
should be taken into consideration when
using the principle of progressive
overload. Therefore duration of
individuals sessions can increase over a
programme (particularly with aerobic
training).
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Type of training
This refers to the methods of training
being implemented in a training
programme eg continuous training, circuit
training etc We will look at these
separately. It can also refer to actual type
of activity eg running, cycling, swimming
etc
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Intensity by Heart Rate


Intensity of training can be measured by
a % of MHR (maximum heart rate).
For training the aerobic systems the
target heart rate is approx 70-85% of
MHR.
For training the anaerobic systems the
target heart rate is approx 85-100%
MHR.
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Putting it all together-by


heart rate

(VCE

TrainingAspect

Endurance(aerobic) Sprint(anaerobic)
training
training

Frequency

4-7 days/week

3-5 days/week

Intensity

Heart Rate: 70-85%


MHR

Heart rate:85-100%
MHR

Sessions per day

Duration

12-16 weeks or
longer

8-10 weeks

Distance/workout

5-8km

3-4km

Physical Education Book 2-1999)

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Intensity by resistance.
Intensity can also be measured by
resistance. It is measured against your
repetition maximum (RM). Eg 1RM is the
maximum you can lift in one rep. 10RM is
the maximum you can lift in 10 reps. This
differs depending on what you are
training eg strength, power etc
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Putting it all togetherby


resistance.
Fitness
Weight
Reps Sets
Speed Rest
Frequency
Component

1RM or
RM

Strength

Very
2-6
Heavy 8095% or 26 RM

between
Sets

per week

5-12

Slow

3-5mins

3-4

Hypertrophy Heavy 70- 6-12


(bulk)
80% or 612 RM

3-10

Slow

1-3mins

3-6

Power

Medium
60-80%
or 8-20
RM

3-8

Fast

3-5mins

3-4

Endurance

Light 40- 15-40 2-5


Fast
1-3mins
60% or
20-40 RM
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(VCE

2-10

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Physical Education BookLimited


2-1999)

Variety
Variety adds spice to your programme,
and helps you to stay motivated. You ca
do this by varying
How you train (Methods)
Where you train
How hard you train (Intensity)
Who you train with
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Acute and chronic


effects of exercise.
These are physiological changes that
occur in response to the demands of
exercise. Acute effects are those
responses that occur while you are
exercising and in the recovery period.
Chronic effects are long term adaptations
that take at least 6 weeks to occur.
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Acute effects of exercise


on the body
(Immediate)

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Increased Heart Rate


When you exercise
your heart rate
(beats per minute)
increases to increase
the supply of oxygen
to your working
muscles.

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Increased Respiration
Rate

Respiratory rate is the


number of breaths taken
in one minute. During
exercise amounts of
carbon dioxide increases
as it is a waste product
and the respiratory rate
increases to increase
oxygen and decrease
carbon dioxide.

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Increased Stroke
Volume
Stroke volume is the
amount of blood
pumped out of your
left ventricle with
each beat of the
heart. This increases
to increase oxygen
supply to working
muscles.
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Increased Cardiac
Output-Q
Cardiac output is the
amount of blood
pumped out of the
left ventricle in 1
minute.
Q=stroke volume x
heart rate.
Q=SV x HR
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Increased VO 2
Oxygen uptake (VO2)
is the amount of
oxygen that is taken
up and used by the
body to produce
energy.

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Increased Tidal Volume


Tidal volume is the
size of each breath
and this increases
with exercise as the
body tries to increase
oxygen flow to the
blood.

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Increased Systolic Blood


Pressure
Systolic blood
pressure is the
pressure as the left
ventricle ejects blood
into the aorta. Diastolic
is the pressure in the
arteries. Only the
systolic pressure
increases during
exercise.
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Increased
venous O 2

Arteriodifference
This is the difference
between the O2
concentration in the
arteries and in the
veins. As more O2 is
used during exercise
this difference
increases.

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Increased Blood to
working muscles
Due to increased
need for O2 during
exercise blood is
distributed more
where it is required in
working muscles.

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Decreased muscle
Glycogen stores
Muscle glycogen
stores are decreased
while exercising as
they are being used
by the body for
energy production.

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Decreased blood plasma


volume
Due to increased
sweating, the blood
plasma volume
usually decreases
during strenuous
exercise and hot
weather.

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Chronic Effects of exercise


on the body
(Long Term)

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More efficient use of O 2


because

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Increased Blood Volume


and haemoglobin levels
Training stimulates
an increase in
plasma volume as
well as in the number
of red blood cells
(and therefore
haemoglobin that
carries O2.

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Increased O 2 carrying
capacity of blood
This is due to the
increase in plasma,
haemoglobin as well
as increases in blood
vessels etcand
overall greater
efficiency.

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Lungs can take in and


distribute more O 2
Increased VO2Max.
This occurs due to
increased tidal
volume as well as
improved ability to
attract O2 from the
alveoli onto the red
blood cells.

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Increased number of
blood vessels
Efficiency is also
improved as the
number of blood
vessels is increased.
Particularly the
capillaries where
gaseous exchange
takes place.

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Increased blood supply


as increased capillaries

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Cardiac Hypertrophy
The size of the heart
increases. For
endurance the
chambers get larger
(particularly the left
ventricle) and for non
endurance the
thickness of the
ventricle walls
increases.
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Decreased resting heart


rate
Your resting heart
rate decreases with
fitness due to greater
efficiency of systems.

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Increased Stroke volume


at rest
The heart develops
larger chambers
and/or thicker walls
and improved
efficiency. Therefore
the stroke volume
increases and this
relates to the
decrease in resting
heart rate.
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More glycogen stored in


muscle
Greater amounts of
fuel are stored for
use in endurance
events. (For nonendurance ATP and
CP stores are
increased.

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Increased size of
muscle
In non-endurance athletes
the size of the muscle is
increased due to
hypertrophy of fast twitch
fibres, in endurance twitch
fibres, increased numbers
of capillaries, increased
strength in connective
tissues eg tendons,
ligaments.

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Increased strength of
muscle
In non-endurance

In non-endurance
athletes the size of the
muscle is increased
due to hypertrophy of
fast twitch fibres,
increased numbers of
capillaries, increased
strength in connective
tissues eg tendons,
ligaments.

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Effects of exercise
When completing a training programme
both acute and chronic effects of
exercise should be monitored this is part
of ensuring that improvements are
measurable. This can occur through goal
setting. Goal setting for programmes
should follow the S.M.A.R.T principle.
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S.M.A.R.T GOALS

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S.M.A.R.T Goals
These may relate to acute and chronic
effects of exercise and what you are trying to
improve or it may relate to what fitness
components you are trying to improve. They
could also involve long term achievement.
However, these goals should be measurable.
These goals will only be achievable if the
training principles and methods of training
are carefully considered.
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Training Methods.
There are various types of training that can be
used in a training programme. These again will
relate back to what components of fitness you
have chosen/or been given to develop. They
will also depend on what energy systems you
are trying to develop. The following examples
are brief and research will need to occur into
developing relevant exercises within these
methods.
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Continuous Training
Continuous exercise
for minimum of
20mins. Particularly
for cardio-respiratory
endurance and
muscular endurance.
Energy system
predominantly
aerobic glycolysis.
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Fartlek training
This is a type of
continuous training that
includes bursts of speed
so that relevant energy
systems are worked.
Therefore cardiorespiratory endurance,
muscular endurance and
speed are all developed.
This increases the use of
the anaerobic glycolysis
system as well as aerobic
glycolysis.

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Circuit training
A combination of continuous
and resistance training. It can
train a variety of fitness
components such as cardiorespiratory endurance,
muscular endurance, speed
agility etc Therefore
depending on how the circuit
is set it can work the aerobic
glycolysis and anaerobic
glycolysis systems. It can be
set up specifically to include
sports skills and use of
relevant muscle groups etc
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Plyometric training
Involves exercises such as
bounding, hopping, jumping
and medicine ball passing.
Plyometrics helps improve
power and explosiveness
for sports especially sports
that involve jumping,
throwing and speed. It can
train the ATP/CP system
and the anaerobic glycolysis
sytems.

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Swiss ball training


Was used at one stage
for rehabilitation.
However benefits such as
improved core stability,
prime mover strength,
balance, dynamic
flexibility and coordination have increased
use in training
programmes. Depending
on how these exercises
are used all three energy
systems can be trained.
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Resistance training
Depending on use in a
programme this type of
training can develop,
muscular strength, power
and endurance. See
recap on following slide.
Muscular endurance
works the aerobic
glycolysis sytem while the
other two work the
ATP/CP and anaerobic
glycolysis systems.

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Putting it all together-by


resistance.
Fitness
Weight
Reps Sets
Speed Rest
Frequency
Component

1RM or
RM

Strength

Very
2-6
Heavy 8095% or 26 RM

between
Sets

per week

5-12

Slow

3-5mins

3-4

Hypertrophy Heavy 70- 6-12


(bulk)
80% or 612 RM

3-10

Slow

1-3mins

3-6

Power

Medium
60-80%
or 8-20
RM

3-8

Fast

3-5mins

3-4

Endurance

Light 40- 15-40 2-5


Fast
1-3mins
60% or
20-40 RM
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3-6

(VCE

2-10

LimitedBook 2-1999)
Physical Education

Flexibility training
Used to improve your joint
Static(passive)stretching which
and muscle flexibility. There
involves taking a muscle to its
are 2 major types of flexibility
greatest range and holding it for at
training.
least 30 secs. Both types improve
flexibilty and work the aerobic
glycolysis system.
PNF(proprioceptive
neuromuscularfacilitation)
where you take a muscle to
its maximum range, then
contract the muscle against
an immovable resistance eg a
partner.

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Interval-sprint training
In this type of training
work intervals are
followed by rest intervals.
I t is designed to improve
speed, power and agility.
Short interval training
works the ATP/CP system
and long interval training
works the anaerobic
glycolysis system.

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Aerobic floor classes


Aerobic floor classes are
a type of continuous
training, but also include
callisthenic exercises
usually found in circuit
training it works cardio
respiratory endurance,
strength, muscular
endurance, flexibility and
agility and predominantly
uses the aerobic
glycolysis system.
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Training principles,
methods of training and
exercise physiology.

All of these topics interrelate and should


be considered carefully when planning or
evaluating a programme. This is relevant
whether you are designing or have been
supplied with a programme. Look
carefully at the focus and intended
outcomes of the programme in relation to
the specific activity sport or components
that are being trained for.
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Application
In using the knowledge from this module
the application is just as important as the
knowledge. Examples of use of training
principles, methods of training and
exercise physiology knowledge is how
these are all applied to your specific
situation/sport/activity or component.
There is a separate power point on
application to physical activity.
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Critical thinking on
programmes.
We must consider the
limitations of the
knowledge in this
module. This
includes ideologies
such as healthism.

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Healthism
Healthism is a set of
assumptions based on
the belief that health is
solely an individual
responsibility. It
includes the concept of
the body as a machine
that is influenced only
by physical factors.
(Health and Physical Education.
The curriculum in action. Making
meaning: Making a difference.
(2004)
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Biophysical focus.
This module has focused on the
biophysical aspects of training for
performance improvement.
It should be considered that all of this
does consider the body as a machine
and has not focused on the
environmental and social effects that
have influence on an individual.
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Limitations
Contained within what has come to be
called the ideology of healthism is a
system of beliefs that defines healthpromoting activities, such as involvement
in some form of physical fitness program,
as a moral obligation (Crawford, 1980).
http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf

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Limitations
Perceptions of health and the body are a
social construction. In contemporary
Western culture, physical and health
ideals are congruent and emphasize
both slimness and muscularity, but do so
differently for men and women.

http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf


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Limitations
For women, slimness is believed to be an
unmistakable sign of self-restraint, and
discipline. The thin person is an exemplar of
mastery of mind over body and virtuous selfdenial (Crawford, 1984). For men, muscular
bulk carries significant social value, so long
as it is not accompanied by visible fat. Fat
signified the loss of control, a moral failure, a
sign of impulsiveness, self-indulgence and
sloth.
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http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf

Limitations
The real champions of the ideology of
healthism have been the educated middleclass. Fitness and fitness education are
geared towards the middle-class who are
predisposed to regarding the body as a
project to be managed and improved through
self-improvement as an integral means to
structure identity and social mobility
(Bourdieu, 1984; Crawford, 1984).
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Limitations
Programs have become
an exercise in human
engineering aimed at
transforming the human
body into an efficient,
inexhaustible machine.
Like any finely tuned
machine, it must be
managed, maintained,
conditioned, and fueled.
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http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf

How can we use the


limitations in our
application.

In writing our programmes we can use


different dimensions of hauora to develop our
goals and outcomes. If we take into
consideration Taha whanau (social/family),
Taha hinengaro (mental/emotional), Taha
wairua (spiritual), as well as Taha tinana
(physical) and what these mean to us
individually then we are looking beyond the
body as a machine.
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How can we use the


limitations in our
application.

We can also consider


the barriers and
enablers that may
effect our
programme. These
will also be beyond
just the physical and
will consider social,
environmental, and
cultural influences.

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Bibliography
Websites

http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/bodytype.htm
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/articles/scni19a2.htm
http://www.rcscs.uottawa.ca/Employee Fitness Programs.pdf
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/health/curriculum/statement/page8_e.php

Books
VCE

Physical Education Book 2 (1999)

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Training Principles (4).


Training is a systematic process in which
athletes improve their fitness to meet the
demands of their sport/activity. Training is
a long-term process that is progressive
and meets the individual at their level of
fitness and conditioning. Training uses
both general and event-specific
exercises to develop individuals for their
sport. Training is a cyclical process: tear
down, recovery, super-compensation and
buildup (adaptation).
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