MOMENTUM

TRASNFER
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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
What are Transport Phenomena ?
Ans. A combination of three closely related topics
Momentum Transfer/Transport
Fluid Dynamics
Energy Transfer/Transport
Heat Transfer
Chemical Species Mass Transfer/Transport
Mass Transfer
Q.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Why these transfer processes be studied together ?

They very frequently occur simultaneously in nature
The basic equations describing these transfer processes are very
closely related
The close similarity of these equations lead to analogies
Mathematics required for the three transfer processes equations
is very similar
The basic molecular mechanism of the three transfer processes is
very similar. The same molecules transfer momentum, energy
and mass, through viscosity, thermal conductivity and diffusivity

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 2
THREE LEVELS OF STUDY OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
1.
Macroscopic Level
2.
Microscopic Level
3.
Molecular Level
Integral Analysis

Macroscopic Level

A Macroscopic Balance of
1. Mass
2. Momentum
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume

No attempt to understand the

details of what is going on
within the control volume
Mainly used for the global
assessment of the problem

Differential Analysis

Microscopic Level

A Microscopic Balance of
1. Mass
2. Momentum
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume

An attempt to understand the

details of what is going on
within the control volume
Mainly used to get information of
1. Velocity profiles
2. Temperature profiles
3. Concentration profiles

To understand the process and optimize it

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 4
Molecular Level
To seek the fundamental understanding of the process of
1. Mass transfer
2. Momentum transfer
3. Energy transfer
In terms of molecular structure & intermolecular forces
A job primarily for
1. Theoretical Physicists
2. Physical Chemist
Some times Engineers/applied scientists do get involved in cases of
1. Complex molecules
2. Extreme temperatures/pressures
3. Chemical Reacting Flows

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 5
Each of these levels involve typical length scales

Macroscopic Level

Order of cm or m

Microscopic Level

Micron to cm range

Molecular Level

1 to 1000 nanometers

Requirements For Good Understanding Of This Subject

MATHEMATICS, Differential Equations, Vectors, Calculus
Physical Interpretation of key mathematical results
Get into the habit of relating physical ideas to
equations
Comparison of intuition and results obtained
Understanding of dimensional analysis

VISCOSITY, MOMENTUM TRANSFER MECHANISM

CONCEPT OF VISCOSITY

Friction is felt only when you move either slower or faster

than the
other passengers.
The extent of friction depends on the type of clothes they
are wearing.
It is this type of clothes that gives rise to the concept of
viscosity.

Viscosity and Newtons Law of Viscosity

Example of two parallel plates

Top layer stationary,

Bottom layer moves with constant velocity V
A fluid is filled between the plates
No slip condition between fluid and plates at both the plate surfaces

Shear force acting on the second

molecular layer of fluid is due to
the difference in the velocities of
the two adjacent layers

Viscosity and Newtons Law of Viscosity, contd. -2

t<
0

y
x

t=0

y
x

V
vx(y, t)

y
x

small t

V
vx(y)

large t

y
x

Fluid initially
at rest

Common sense suggests the following.

1. A constant force F is required to
maintain the motion of lower plate
Lower plate set
in motion
2. This force is directly proportional to
1. Area of plates
Velocity buildup
2. Velocity of lower plate
in unsteady flow
3. This force is inversely proportional
Final velocity
to
distribution in
1. Distance between the plates
steady flow

Mathematical Interpretation
F V

A Y

The force applied, F is the shear force

F
V

A
Y

V/Y is the gradient or slope

dv
V
x
Y
dy

Viscosity and Newtons Law of Viscosity,

The shear stress exerted in the x-direction on a
fluid surface of constant y by the fluid in the
region of lesser y is designated as
Shear Stress
fluid surface of constant y, Shear
force on unit area perpendicular to
the y-direction
The shear stress is moving in the
direction of y because the bottom
layer of fluid exerts a shear stress
on the next layer which then
exerts
a shear stress on subsequent
layer

yx
x-direction

Shear stress is induced by the

motion of the plate. Shear
stress can be induced by a
pressure gradient or a gravity
force.
Pressure force is a force acting
on a surface while the gravity
force is the force acting on a

In the neighborhood of moving solid surface at y = 0 the fluid

acquires a certain amount of x-momentum. This fluid, in turn,
imparts momentum to the adjacent layer of liquid, causing it to
remain in motion in the x direction. Hence x-momentum is
being transmitted through the fluid in the positive y direction.
Therefore yx may also be interpreted as the flux of xmomentum in the positive y direction, where the term "flux"
means "flow per unit area." This interpretation is consistent
with the molecular picture of momentum transport and the
kinetic theories of gases and liquids. It also is in harmony with
the analogous treatment given later for heat and mass transport.

The idea in the preceding paragraph may be paraphrased by

saying that momentum goes "downhill" from a region of high
velocity to a region of low velocity-just as a sled goes
downhill from a region of high elevation to a region of low
elevation, or the way heat flows from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature. The velocity
gradient can therefore be thought of as a "driving force" for
momentum transport.

Viscosity and Newtons Law of Viscosity,

The shear stress is a function of
1. Velocity gradient
2. Properties of the fluid
If this functional dependence is linear:
fluids are called Newtonian Fluids

yx

dvx

dy

Where, vx = fluid velocity in the x-direction

= fluid viscosity, a property of the fluid, not the physical system
Behaviour Of Gases At Moderate Pressures
Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure

Increases With Temperature

The temperature dependence is between T0.6 and T. Some theories are available.

Symbol v to represent the viscosity divided by the

density (mass per unit volume) of the fluid, this
quantity is called kinematic viscosity.

Units of viscosity in SI system

Example 1.1-1

Pressure and Temperature Dependence of viscosity

The viscosity of Newtonian fluids is constant
Behavior Of Gases At Moderate Pressures

Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure

Increases With Temperature

The temperature dependence is between T0.6 and T. Some theories are available.

Behaviour Of Liquids

Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure

Decreases With Temperature

Units of viscosity is g/cm/sec (poise) or Pa-s.

Magnitudes:
Air @ 20C

0.00018 g/cm/sec

Liquid water @ 20 C 0.001 Pa-s, 0.01 g/cm/s

The reduced viscosity

is plotted versus the reduced
temperature for various values of the reduced pressure. A
"reduced quantity is one that has been made dimensionless by
dividing by the corresponding quantity at the critical point. The
chart shows that the viscosity of a gas approaches a limit (the
low-density limit) as the pressure becomes smaller; for most
gases, this limit is nearly attained at 1 atm pressure. The
viscosity of a gas at low density increases with increasing
temperature, whereas the viscosity of a liquid decreases with
increasing temperature.

Experimental values of the critical viscosity are seldom

available. However it may be estimated in one of the following
ways:
(i) if a value of viscosity is known at a given reduced pressure
and temperature, preferably at conditions near to those of
interest, then critical viscosity can be calculated from
ii) if critical P-V-T data are available, then viscosity, may be
estimated from these empirical relations

Example 1.3-1

Generalization of Newtons Law of

Viscosity

Three velocity components may depend on all three

coordinates and possibly on time. The velocity
components are given by

In this case there will be nine stress components ij.

(where i and j may take on the designations x,y,z).
There will be two contributions to the force
1. That associated with the pressure
2. That associated with the viscous forces.

The pressure force will always be perpendicular to the

exposed surface. Hence in (a) the force per unit area on the
shaded surface will be a vector px,-that is, the pressure (a
scalar) multiplied by the unit vector x, in the x direction.
Similarly, the force on the shaded surface in (b) will be py,
and in (c) the force will be pz. The pressure forces will be
exerted when the fluid is stationary as well as when it is in
motion.
The viscous forces come into play only when there are
velocity gradients within the fluid. In general they are neither
perpendicular to the surface element nor parallel to it, but
rather at some angle to the surface. Force per unit area exerted
on shaded area in (a), (b) and (c) are x, y, z. Each of these
forces (which are vectors) has components (scalars); for
example x has components xx, xy , xz

The tabulation is a summary of the forces per unit area

(stresses) exerted within a fluid, both by the thermodynamic
pressure and the viscous stresses. Sometimes we will find it
convenient to have a symbol that includes both types of
stresses, and so we define the molecular stresses as follows:

ij (and also the ij )may be interpreted in two ways:

1. ij = pij+ij = force in the j direction on a unit area

perpendicular to the i direction, where it is understood that the
fluid in the region of lesser xi is exerting the force on the fluid of
greater xi
2. ij = pij+ij = flux of j-momentum in the positive i directionthat is, from the region of lesser xi to that of greater xi
The first one is particularly useful in describing the forces
exerted by the fluid on solid surfaces. The stresses xx = p+xx,
yy = p+yy , zz = p+zz are called normal stresses. Whereas the
remaining quantities xy= xy, yz= yz, are called shear stresses.
These quantities, which have two subscripts associated with the
coordinate directions, are referred to as "tensors," just as
quantities (such as velocity) that have one subscript associated
with the coordinate directions are called vectors.

1.

2.

Therefore we will refer to as the viscous stress tensor (with

components ij ) and as the molecular stress tensor (with
components ij).When there is no chance for confusion, the
modifiers "viscous" and "molecular" may be omitted.
How are these stresses ij related to the velocity gradients in the
fluid? We put several restrictions on the stresses, as follows:
The viscous stresses may be linear combinations of all the
velocity gradients
We assert that time derivatives or time integrals should not
appear in the expression.

3. If the fluid is isotropic-that is, it has no preferred directionthen the coefficients in front of the two expressions must be
scalars so that

4. We do not expect any viscous forces to be present, if the fluid

is in a state of pure rotation. This requirement leads to the
necessity that ij , be a symmetric combination of the velocity
gradients. By this we mean that if i and j are interchanged, the
combination of velocity gradients remains unchanged. It can be
shown that the only symmetric linear combinations of velocity
gradients are

Thus the required generalization for Newton's law of viscosity

in Eq. 1.1-2 is then the set of nine relations (six being
independent):

This set of relations can be written more concisely in

the vector-tensor notation of appendix A as

Momentum can be transported by the bulk flow of the

fluid, and this process is called convective transport
At the center of the cube (located at x, y, z) the fluid
velocity vector is v.
We consider three mutually perpendicular planes (the
shaded planes) through the point x, y, z, and we ask
how much momentum is flowing through each of
them. Each of the planes is taken to have unit area.

Volume rate of flow across shaded unit area is vx.

This fluid carries with it momentum v per unit
volume.
momentum flux across the shaded area in (a)is v v
x.
momentum flux across the shaded area in (b) is v v
y.

momentum flux across the shaded area in (c) is vz .v

These three vectors v v , v v , v v describe the
x.
y.
z .
momentum flux across the three areas perpendicular
to the respective axes. Each of these vectors has an x,y
and z-component. The quantity vxvy is convective flux
of y-momentum across a surface perpendicular to the
x-direction.

The collection of nine scalar components given in Table

1.7-1 can be represented as

We ask what the convective momentum flux would be

through a surface element whose orientation is given
by a unit normal vector n.

If a fluid is flowing through the surface ds with a velocity v,

then the volume rate of flow through the surface, from the
minus side to the plus side, is (n. v)ds. Hence the rate of flow
of momentum across the surface is (n.v)vds, and the
convective momentum flux is (n.v)v. According to the rules
for vector-tensor notation given in appendix A, this can also be
written as [n . vv]that is, the dot product of the unit normal
vector n with the convective momentum flux tensor pvv.

If we let n be successively the unit vectors pointing in the x, y,

and z directions (i.e. x ,y ,z), we obtain the entries in the
second column of table.

Similarly, the total molecular momentum flux through

a surface of orientation n is given by

It is understood that this is the flux from the minus

side to the plus side of the surface. This quantity can
also be interpreted as the force per unit area exerted
by the minus material on the plus material across the
surface.
The combined momentum flux is the sum of the
molecular momentum flux and the convective
momentum flux:

Keep in mind that the contribution p contains no

velocity, only the pressure; the combination pvv
contains the density and products of the velocity
components; and the contribution contains the
viscosity and, for a Newtonian fluid, is linear in the
velocity gradients. All these quantities are secondorder tensors.
Most of the time we will be dealing with components
of these quantities. For example the components of
are

Appendix B.1

Non-Newtonian Fluids
For non-Newtonian fluids
The functional dependence between the shear stress and the
velocity gradient is more complex.
We can write in the most general format:

non-Newtonian

dvx
f yx ,
, fluid properties 0
dy

Newtonian

yx

non-Newtonian

dvx dy

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -2

Mathematically one can write for Non-Newtonian Fluids in the form

yx

dvx
dy

Where,
= Apparent Fluid Viscosity, a function of either yx / dvx/dy / both
Effects of
1. Thus apparent fluid viscosity is dependent on the current state of
fluid
2. If apparent viscosity decreases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed pseudoplastic
3. If apparent viscosity increases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed dilatant

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -3

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids
Bingham model: applicable for fine suspensions and pastes Bingham
Ostwald-de Waele model: e.g. used for CMC in water

Ostwald

Eyring model: derived from the Eyring kinetic theory

Eyring

Ellis model: CMC in water

Reiner-Philippoff model

Ellis

Reiner

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd. -4

Graphical representation of two-parameter model

Things To Remember
These models are empirical, that is
the parameters of the models are
obtained by curve fitting
The parameters are function of T, P
and composition
These model equations should not
be used outside their range of
validity.

Prediction of Viscosity of Gases and Liquids

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 1

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 2

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 3

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids 4

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids 5