Presentation on Railways,

Harbours & Docks

(Water transportation)

Presented By
Basit Mukhtar Banday - 1011210382
Urvashi Mishra - 1011210413

RAILWAYS
CONTENTS :
Permanent way, its components and functions of each
component
Gauges in railway tracks
coning of Wheels
Geometric design of railway tracks - Gradient - Super
elevation, Widening of gauges in curves, Grade
compensation - Speed on curves
Points and crossings
Creep of rail
signaling interlocking
Track circuiting , Track drainage
Lay outs of railway stations and yards.

PERMANENT WAY

COMPONENTS OF PERMANENT WAY

Rails: Provide a continuous and level surface for train movement, provide
lateral guidance to the train wheels, bear the wheel load
Sleepers (ties): Hold rails in correct alignment and spacing,
provide firm and even support to rails and transfer load to a wider area of
the ballast
Fasteners: Fix rails to sleepers
Ballast : Transfer and distribute loads to the subgrade, help
Drainage
Subgrade: Transfers and distributes loads to soil (stabilized)
layer

RAILS
Functions of rail

Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of

the trains with minimum friction with steel wheels of the rolling stock.
Rails provide strength, durability and lateral guidance to the track.
Rails transmit the axle load to sleepers, which transfer the same
load to the underlying ballast and formation.
Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads,
breaking forces and temperature variance.

SLEEPERS
A good sleeper should meet the following requirements:
The initial cost and the maintenance cost of the sleepers should be
low.
The fittings required for fixing the rails on to the sleepers, should be
simple which can be easily adjusted during the maintenance.
They should be able to maintain a perfect alignment, gauge and
levels of the rails and should afford efficient adjustment and
maintenance.
They should provide sufficient bearing area to hold the rail seats and
for the ballast to be supported on, to resist the crushing due to
movement of heavy axle loads.
The sleeper spacing should be such as to remove and replace the
ballast during regular maintenance operation.
They should be capable to resist the shocks and vibrations caused
due to fast moving vehicles at high speeds.
The sleepers should be of such a design that they remain in their
positions and do not get disturbed due to movement of trains.

CAST IRON SLEEPERS

CONCRETE SLEEPERS

TIMBER SLEEPERS

BALLAST
Requirements of Good Ballast:
1.It should be tough and should not crumble under heavy loads.
2.It should not make the track dusty or muddy.
3.It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering.
4.It should not produce any chemical reaction with rails and sleepers.
5.The materials should be easily workable.
6.It should retain its position and should not be distributed.

Functions of ballast:
To distribute the loads uniformly over the subgrade.
To provide good drainage for the track structure.
To provide elasticity and resilience to track for getting proper riding
comfort.
To held the track structure to line and grade.
To prevent growth of brush and weeds.

FORMATION

The prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast,

sleepers and rails is called formation
The formation can be in shape of an embankment or a cutting
FUNCTIONS :
To provide a smooth and uniform bed on which track can be laid
To bear the load transmitted to it from the moving load through the
section of ballast
To facilitate drainage
To provide stability to the track

FASTENINGS AND
FIXTURES

GAUGES ON RAILWAYS

CONING OF WHEELS
The Surface of wheels are made in cone shape at an inclination of 1 in 20,
and the same slope is provided in the rails, this is known as coning of
wheels.

Railway wheels are usually beveled by means of a cone semi-angle of

the arrangement of 1/20 (rad.).
The rails are also fixed at this identical angle to the perpendicular.

POINTS AND
CROSSINGS

POINTS AND CROSSINGS

Points, crossings, turnouts, cross-overs are arrangements by which
different routes either parallel or diverging are connected and afford
the means for trains to move from one route to another
The arrangement for diversion of trains from one track to another is
known as points and crossings
Necessity of points and crossings:
Provides flexibility of movement by connecting one line to another
according to requirements
Help for imposing restrictions over turnouts which necessarily
retard the movements
From safety aspect, if points and crossings are weak, the vehicles
are susceptible to derailments

SIGNALLING &
INTERLOCKING

Classification
Characteristic

Basis of classification

Examples

1.Operational

Form of communication Audible: Detonators

of message, audible or Visual: Hand signal
visual

2.Functional

Communicating the
information to driver to
stop or to move
cautiously

Stop signal, Speed

indicator,
Shunt signals

3.Locational

Reception or departure
signals

Outer, Home starter

and advance starter
signals

4.Special
characteristics

Meant for special

purpose

Calling on signals,
repeater signals,
speed indicators etc

SIGNAL

VISIBLE
HAND
SIGNALS

AUDIBLE
FIXED
SIGNALS

CAUTION
INDICATORS
COLOUR LIGHT
2,3 OR 4
ASPECTS

DISTANT, HOME, STARTER,

ADVANCED STARTER,
SHUNT, CALLING ON,
REPEATER, AUTOMATIC.

STOP
SIGNALS
SEMAPHORE
SIGNAL

WARNER,OUTER, HOME,
STARTER, ADVANCED
STARTER, CALLING ON,
SHUNT, REPEATER,
COACHING

Types of stop signals

1.Outer signal
First stop signal at a station which indicates entry of a train
from block section to station limits
Signal provided at a distance of about 580m from home
signal
2. Home signal
The next stop signal after outer signal towards station side
Signal provided at about 180m short of points and crossing
3. Routing signal
Various signals for main line and branch line fixed on the
same vertical post.
4. Starter signal
Starter signal is a stop signal and marks the limit up to
which a particular line can be occupied without infringing
the other
lines.
5. Advanced starter signal
Last stop signal on a station for departure of trains

SEMAPHORE SIGNAL

GANGHA.G, A.P, SRM

UNIVERSITY

SEMAPHORE SIGNAL

COLOUR LIGHT SIGNAL

Waterway
Transportation

Waterway Transportation
Inland water transportation
by means of canals and rivers
Ocean water transportation
by means of sea or ocean
Advantages
It is the cheapest mode of transportation because rail
and road transport requires special tracks and roads for
the movement.
It possess high load carrying capacity.
It leads to overall development of commerce, industry,
and international trade.
It requires less motive power.

Disadvantages
It is slow in operation.
It is useful when water is available as the mode of
transport. i.e., water must be available in river or
canals, and sea coast is not available for most of the
countries or most portion of the country.
It may lead to accidents in case of ocean storms
causing great loss of cargo.
Feeder systems such as railways and highways are
must for door to door delivery.

Harbour
A harbour can be defined as a basin well protected
naturally or artificially from the action of wind and
water waves, and is situated along the sea shore or
river or canal or lake.
Classification
Based on the type of protection provided
Based on the utility of the harbour
Based on the location
Depending on the protection
Natural harbours or Natural roadsteads
Semi-natural harbours
Artificial harbours or Artificial roadsteads

Natural Harbour

Natural Roadstead

Semi Natural Harbour

Artificial Harbour

Classification based on utility

Harbours of refuge - Provides facilities for anchorage
and repair facilities for damaged ships.
Commercial harbours - Provides facilities
merchandise, loading, unloading, and storage.

for

Fishery harbours - Refrigeration, loading, unloading,

and quick dispatch of perishable fish.
Military harbours - Provide facilities for military vessels.
Marina harbours - Provides resorting, yacht club, sport,
and fishing facilities for boat owners having permanent
berths.

Classification based on location

Canal harbour located along the canal.
Lake harbour located along the shore of the lake.
River or estuary harbour located along the banks of
the river.
Sea or ocean harbour located along the sea or ocean
coast.
Requirements of a good harbour
Ship channels must have sufficient depth for the draft of
the vessels.
Harbour bottom should offer secure anchorage for the

Port
The term port is used to indicate a harbour where
terminal facilities such as stores, landing of
passengers and cargo etc. are added to it.
In general, it can be stated that a port includes a
harbour or in other words, every port is a harbour but
the reverse is not true.
Requirements of a good port
It should be centrally situated for the hinterland.
It should have good connectivity with rail and
highways so that goods can be transported to and
from the port easily and quickly.

 It should provide maximum facilities to all the visiting

ships such as docking, loading, unloading, and
servicing of ships.
The passage to open sea must have sufficient depth
and width, and it should be marked suitably to aid
navigation.
Facilities at Major Port or Terminal Facilities
Protection facilities protection from wind and water
waves should be provided by means of construction of
breakwaters.
Dredging facilities dredging machinery to maintain
required depth of channel so that larger ships can
enter harbour safely.

exit of tidal waters is required during high tides.

Docking facilities Aprons or platforms supported on
wharves or quay walls or piers should be provided
for docking of the vessels.
Loading and unloading facilities cranes of 1 to 50
tons capacities, vacuum pumps, and conveyors are
made available.
Storage facilities storage sheds and cold storages
must be provided to store chemicals, medicines, and
perishable fish etc.
Repairing facilities - fixed type of graving dry docks
or floating dry docks should be provided for
repairing of ships.

 Offshore terminal facilities when a ship of larger

size, having draft greater than available depth of
water in basin, the ship is moored outside the
harbour by means of various cables and anchors.

Breakwater
The protection barrier constructed to enclose harbours
and to keep the harbour waters undisturbed by the
effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwater.

Mound
breakwater

Interior or hearth or core usually quarry waste each

stone weighs 10 kg to 20 kg.
Filters or secondary armours weighs 0.5 ton to 1.5
tons, filter zone destroy the energy of the wave that
come through.
Armour blocks weighs 2 to 10 tons, destroy major

Characteristics of Mound Breakwater

Dissipation of energy of incoming wave is done in
stages by different layers.
Natural foundation is unprepared.
No binding material is used between adjacent units.
No possibility of overturning as there is no rigidity in
construction.
The construction is porous or pervious, so no
possibility of uplift pressure.
Unskilled labor can be used in construction of
mound.

Docks
It is an enclosed area within the harbour used for
berthing of ships.
Classification
Wet docks used for loading and unloading of cargo
and passengers.
Dry docks used for repairing of vessels.

Wet dock in low

tidal basin

Wet dock in high tidal basin or

enclosed or impounded basin

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Wet Docks

Advantages
Ships can come in and berth or leave at all times. i.e.,
no restriction on arrival and departure of ships.
Costly arrangements like lock gates are not required
for closing of entrances.
Disadvantages
If the range of tide is high, loading and unloading
operations are seriously affected.
The fluctuations of water level causes rubbing of sides
of ships against piers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Enclosed Wet Docks
Advantages
Uniform water level is maintained which is very
convenient
for
handling
cargo.
It
increases
productivity of the port.

Dry Docks
Repairing docks in fixed form:
Graving dry dock
Marine railway dry dock or slipway
Lift dock
Repairing docks in movable form:
Floating docks
Depositing docks
Method of dry docking

Facilities Provided at Graving Dry Dock

Lifting lifting and moving facilities in the form of
cranes of 2 to 5 tons capacity.
Compressed air supply ensures working
pneumatic tools for cutting, drilling etc.

of

Supply of salt water flooding of dock chamber is

done by supplying water through culverts through
side walls.
Supply of fresh water is required for cleaning of
ships.
Electrical power supply ensures working of welding
units, capstans, and pumps.

 Anchorage facilities in the form of bollards.

Pumping and flooding facilities
Supporting facilities
Shores
Keel blocks
Bilge blocks or side blocks

C/S of Graving

Loading and Unloading Facilities

The platforms known as Quays, Wharves, Piers, and
Jetties are used for loading and unloading of cargo and
passengers.

Harbour
Layout

Wharf
A wharf is quay wall usually of open or framed
structure of piles with bracings jutting from shore
towards sea.

Wharf Quay Wall on

Piles

Piers
Constructed perpendicular to shore
loading, and unloading of cargo etc.

for

berthing,

Consists two parts

Floor
Supporting structure

Timber Framed Structure

Trestle Pier

Pier with
Central Fill

Pier with Central

Mound

Dolphins
A cluster of closely spaced piles is known as dolphin.
These structures are used for tying and transferring
cargo from one ship to other during mooring of
vessels.
Classification
Flexible dolphins
Rigid dolphins

Flexible Dolphin

Fenders
The cushions provided permanently with dock walls are
known as fenders.
Types of Fenders
Timber piles fenders with springs
Rubber fenders
Rigidly fixed to dock walls
Loosely anchored to dock walls
Pneumatic Fenders

Timber Piles Fenders with Springs

Rigid Rubber Fenders Fixed to

Dock Wall

Loosely Anchored Rubber Fenders

to Dock Wall

Pneumatic
Fenders

Slip
The spacing between two adjacent piers is known as
slip.

The spacing should be wide enough for entry and

exit of vessels, and loading and unloading of cargo

Moles
The structures formed by rock filling and extending from
shore to sea are known as moles.
They are preferred to trestle piers when water depth is
less than 3 m.
The top surface of the mole can be used for providing
roadway, sidewalk, and railway track etc.

Guiding or Navigation Facilities

Light House

Lighting
Apparatus