Hydrogen Automotive

Power

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 Hydrogen Internal Combustion
• Advantages
– H2 has a high specific energy (energy
per unit mass) (8)
• Higher than liquid hydrocarbons by a
factor of 2.8 (8)
– Very easy to burn (8)
– Main by-product is water vapor (4)

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 Hydrogen Internal Combustion
• Advantages (cont’d)
– Can be operated as diesel engines at very lean air-fuel
ratios and high compressions (15)
• Spark ignited, but load variations are achieved using WOT
(wide-open throttle) by varying the richness of the hydrogen-
air mixture. (15)
– The throttle valve can be omitted because H2 has broad
flammability limits (15)
» Lower limit = 4% (15)
» Upper limit = 75% (15)
– Extremely lean mixtures during idle run leave a high
concentration of unburned H2 (up to 3% by volume), which poses
a safety problem.(15)
» Can be addressed by a compromise, using a throttle valve
during idle run and WOT with variation in the mixture’s
richness in all other cases. (15)

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 Hydrogen Internal Combustion
• Disadvantages
– Less horsepower (4)
– Shorter driving range (4)

• H-ICEs use 3.5 times more liquid H2 than gasoline (9)

– H2 has a very low energy density (energy per unit volume) (8)
» Liquid H2 has less energy density than aviation kerosene by a factor of
about 4.1 (8)
– Consequently provides less energy per storage space (12)
– Requires higher volume for the same amount of energy (13)

– Traces of NOx generated by high-temperature reactions

of atmospheric N2 & O2 during combustion (8)
– Can be cleaned up by catalytic converters (9)
– Leaner air-fuel mixtures reduce combustion temperature but lower
horsepower (9)

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 Hydrogen Internal Combustion

• Disadvantages (cont’d)
– Backfire is a major problem for H-ICEs (15)
• The air-fuel mixture can ignite before IVC
(intake valve closure), causing an
explosion in the intake manifold (15)
– Caused by hot spots in the combustion chamber
(15)

» Residual gases (15)

» Surface deposits (15)
» Valves (15)
– Use of a lean air-fuel mixture eliminates
backfire but decreases power output (15)

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 Fuel Cells
• Fuel cells break apart a molecule of H2 into
electrons & protons (5)
– Two plates are connected by a wire with an electrolyte
sandwiched in between (13)
• Hydrogen is supplied to one plate, and oxygen to the other (13)
• The two elements are attracted to one another and try to bond
(18)

• Only the proton of the hydrogen atom can pass through the
membrane in the sandwich (18)
– The accompanying electron of this proton has to go around the
membrane, passing through a coil and creating electricity. (18)
– The hydrogen proton and electron reunite with oxygen on the other
side of the membrane, creating water and a small amount of heat
(18)

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 Fuel Cells
• Advantages
– Combine the best of batteries (quiet, no emissions)
and ICEs (easy refueling once the infrastructure is in
place) (18)
– Far more energy-efficient than gasoline-fueled
vehicles (1)
• Have double the efficiency of ICEs (13)

– Far less polluting (1)

– Simple construction (13)

• Mass production costs would become extremely low (13)

• 10-fold increase in power density of fuel-cell stacks & 10-fold
decrease in their cost within the past 5 years (19)

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 Fuel Cells
• Disadvantages
– Expensive (1)

• Prototype fuel cells last only 1/5th as long as would

be needed to make fuel cells cost-effective (5)
– Energy losers (5)

• Costs more to produce hydrogen than is earned

by using H2 in fuel cells (5)
• Electricity generated by fuel cells in cars costs
thousands of dollars per kilowatt (5)
– Would have to fall by a factor of 10 to become
economically viable (5)

8
 Hybrids
• A proven technology that could
increase fuel-economy 50% (2)
• The electric motor gets the car started and
up to speed. (14)
• As the car slows down, kinetic energy
recharges the battery. (14)
• Never need plugging in (2)
• Combine the advantages of
batteries, electric motors and ICEs.
(13)

9
 Hybrids
• 2 Types:
1. Electric motor to drive the wheels with a
small engine to drive a generator which
charges the batteries. (13)
2. “Parallel Hybrid” (13)
• Allows either the engine or electric motor to
drive the wheels. (13)
• Uses the engine only at optimum speed. (13)

10
 Hydrogen Safety
• “The Hindenberg Phenomenon”
– H2 gas is highly explosive (4)

– One of the most flammable

substances on Earth. (12)

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 Hydrogen Safety (11)

.30 caliber armor-piercing bullet fired from 50’ w/o fragmenting

Livermore’s hydrogen cryogenic tank, thus meeting DOT & SAE 12
standard (11)
 Hydrogen Production
• Two methods
– Electrolysis (7)

• Requiring H2O & electricity (7)

• 90% of electricity produced in the U.S. generated by fossil
fuel plants that emit CO2 (7)
– Reforming (7)

• Requiring a hydrocarbon which is mixed with H2O & heat (7)

– Releases CO2 (7)

• An on-board reformer can produce H2 from a liquid fuel
(methanol or gasoline) (13)

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 Hydrogen Production
• Expensive to produce (7)

– 1,600 joules required to produce an amount of H2

yielding only 1,000 joules (7)
• Only 167 joules required to produce an amount of gasoline
yielding 1,000 joules (7)
• Can produce greenhouse gases (3)
• In the long term, wind energy can pluck hydrogen
from water in the ocean (3)
– In the near term, more likely to come from natural gas
(3)

– Right now, the cheapest and most efficient way to

make hydrogen is to reform the carbon in natural gas.
(14)

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 Hydrogen Storage
• Gas in pressurized tanks (17)

– Very heavy (17)

• A safety tank holding 3 kg (6.6 lbs) of H2 would

weigh 400 kg (880 lbs), cutting into fuel economy
(17)

– Gas can migrate into the metal, making the

metal brittle, fatiguing it so H2 can leak from
the tank (17)
• Quantuum Technologies of Irvine, CA, addresses
this problem with a carbon fiber impermeable liner
(17)

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 Hydrogen Storage
• Liquid in cryogenic tanks (17)

– Low temperature of liquefaction: -253° C (8)

• Liquefaction is very expensive (9)

– High electrical consumption is required to liquefy H2 (17)

– Evaporative losses occur (17)

• 2% of liquid H2 is lost to evaporation per day (9)

• Less dense than other liquids

– Very low energy density (energy per unit volume) (8)
» Liquid H2 has less energy density than aviation kerosene by a
factor of about 4.1 (8)
– Consequently provides less energy per storage space (12)
– Requires higher volume for the same amount of energy (13)
• Liquid H2 requires high degree of thermal insulation (8)

– Adds to weight and cost of storage tanks (8)

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 Hydrogen Storage
• Solid in metal hydrides (17)

– H2 is chemically bonded to alloys (17)

• Heat is required to release the H2 (17)

– Compact (17)

• 1/3 the volume of a pressurized H2 gas tank at 5,000 psi (17)

• ¼ the volume at 3,600 psi (17)

– Inherently safe (17)

• Held at low pressure (less than 200 psi) (17)

• At ambient pressure (17)
• In the event of a crash, hydrides do not release H2 (17)
– Very heavy (17)

• A metal hydride system holding 5 kg (11 lbs) of H2 would

weigh 300 kg (660 lbs) (17)

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 Hydrogen Storage
• Millennium Cell’s H2-On-Demand (6)

– Stores H2 in the form of sodium borohydride (NaBH4) (6)

• Soap-like chemical used for bleaching paper (6)

• Can be stored as a liquid in plastic containers under ambient
temperature and pressure (6)
• Neither flammable nor explosive (6)
• Waste product is borax (NaBO2) (6)
– Removed from the car while fresh NaBH4 is pumped in (6)
– Waste borax is easily recycled to create NaBH4 by adding H2 (6)
– Catalyst liberates H2 (6)
– No separate H2 storage needed (6)
– Can deliver H2 at 100% humidity (6)
• Humidity levels are critical for fuel cell health (6)

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 (6)
Millennium Cell’s NaBH4/NaBO2 Flow

(Sharke, Mechanical Engineering, 2/02) 19

 (6)
Millennium Cell’s NaBH4/NaBO2 Loop

(Sharke, Mechanical Engineering, 2/02)

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 Millennium Cell’s NaBH4/NaBO2 Storage
(6)
Tank

(Sharke, Mechanical Engineering, 2/02) 21

 Prototypes
• ICE Prototypes
– BMW has tested about 20 H-ICE prototypes over the past 20 years (9)

• 220-mile range vs. 370-mile range for gasoline version of the 750hL (9)
• BMW’s ICE prototype buries fuel lines in the chassis (10)
• Sensors detect any trace of H2 and cause windows and trunk lid to open
immediately (10)
• Developed dual-fuel capability ICEs until H2 refueling stations become
common (9)
• FCV Prototypes
– GM Hy-Wire (combines fuel cell power with drive-by-wire) (20)
– Ford Focus: 15 cars in various stages of testing (20)
– Chrysler Natrium (uses sodium borohydride) (20)
– Toyota Highlander: 2 on University of California campuses (20)
– Honda FCX: 5 leased to the city of Los Angeles (20)
– Nissan Xterra: part of California’s Fuel Cell Partnership Program (20)

• Hybrid Prototypes
– Toyota has sold 125,000 Prius hybrids since 1997. (14)

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 References
1. “Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles: Why Wait Sixteen Years?” PR Newswire, 1/31/03
2. “A Bad Element,” Robert F. Kennedy Jr., NYT, 2/16/03
3. “Our New Hydrogen Bomb,” Nicholas Kristof, NYT, 2/21/03
4. “Mazda Motor Takes Journalists for Jaunt In a Hydrogen Car,” Michael Williams, WSJ, 10/25/93
5. “The Burning Questions of Hydrogen,” The Washington Times, 11/10/02
6. “Better Storage Through Chemistry,” Paul Sharke, Mechanical Engineering, 2/02
7. “Hydrogen Isn’t Yet the Miracle Fuel of the Future,” George Burman, The Fresno Bee, 1/25/03
8. “Fuel-Related Issues Concerning the Future of Aviation,” F. Armstrong, J. Allen, & R. Denning, Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, Vol. 211, No. 1, 2/24/97
9. “Another Take on Hydrogen,” Joerg Dittmer, Canadian Business and Current Affairs, 2/17/03
10. “R & D in the Fast Lane,” Bill Siuru, Mechanical Engineering, 2/89
11. “Fill’er Up With Hydrogen,” Michael Valentini, Mechanical Engineering, 2/02
12. “Hydrogen Cars Spark Fuel Debate,” Mark Nolte, The Daily Universe, 2/12/03
13. “Mobile Technology: Focus on Transport,” Energy and Environmental Management, 11/02
14. “The Green Car,” Rose Simone, Toronto Star, 2/15/03
15. “Experimental Study of a Hydrogen-Fueled Engine,” R. Sierens and S. Verhelst, Journal of Engineering for Gas
Turbines and Power, Vol. 123, 1/03
16. “Hydrogen-Powered Bus Hits Streets,” Greg Paula, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 119, Issue 8, 8/97
17. “Fill’er Up – With Hydrogen,” Michael Valenti, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 124, Issue 2, 2/02
18. “H2GO: Hydrogen-Powered Cars the Wave of the Future,” by David Arnold, The Boston Globe, 11/5/02
19. “Vehicle of Change,” Lawrence Burns, Byron McCormick, and Christopher Borroni-Bird, Scientific American, Vol.
287, Issue 4, 10/02
20. “Imports Invited to Bush Fuel Cell Party,” Harry Stoffer, Automotive News, Vol. 77, 2/10/03

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