DENTAL CASTING

ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION

The wide varieties of complex dental alloy

compositions consist of the following:
Dental amalgams containing the major elements
mercury, silver, tin, and copper.
Noble metal alloys in which the major elements
are some combination of gold, palladium, silver
and important secondary elements including
copper, platinum, tin, indium and gallium.
Base metal alloys with a major element of nickel,
cobalt, iron or titanium and many secondary
elements that are found in the alloy compositions.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
AND EFFECT OF
NOBLE METALS AND
BASE METALS ON DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS

NOBLE METALS
The noble metals have been the basis of inlays,
crowns and bridges because of their resistance to
corrosion in the oral cavity.
Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, osmium, and silver are the eight noble
metals. However, in the oral cavity, silver is more
reactive and therefore is not considered as a noble
metal.
Of the eight noble metals, four are of major
importance in dental casting alloys, i.e., gold,
platinum, palladium and silver.
All four have a face-centered cubic crystal
structure and all are white coloured except for gold.

GOLD
Soft and ductile metal with
a yellow Gold hue.
Density of 19.3 gms/cm3
Melting point of 1063oC
Boiling point of 2970 oC
CTE of 14.210-6/C.
Gold has a good luster
takes up a high polish.
It has good chemical
stability and does not
tarnish and corrode.

Gold content:
Traditionally the gold content of dental casting alloys have been referred
to in terms of:
Karat
Fineness
Karat:
It is the parts of pure gold in 24 parts of alloys.
For Eg: a) 24 Karat gold is pure gold
b) 22 Karat gold is 22 parts of pure gold and remaining 2
parts of other metal.
The term Karat is rarely used to describe gold content in current alloys.
Fineness:
Fineness of a gold alloy is the parts per thousand of pure gold. Pure
gold is 1000 fine. Thus, if of the gold alloy is pure gold, it is said to be
750 fine.

 SILVER

The Whitest of all metals. It

whitens the alloy, thus helping
to counteract the reddish
colour of copper.
To a slight extent it increases
strength and hardness.
In large amounts however, it
reduces tarnish resistance.
It has the lowest density
10.4gms/cm3
Melting point of 961oC,
Boiling point of 2216 oC
among the four precious
metals used in dental casting
alloys.
Its CTE is 19.710-6/oC , which
is comparatively high.

PLATINUM
It increases the strength and

corrosion resistance.
It also increases the melting
point and has a whitening
effect on the alloy.
It helps to reduce the grain
size.
It has the highest density of
21.45 gms/cm3
highest melting point of
1769oC,
Boiling point of 4530 oC
The lowest CTE 8.910-6/oC
among the four precious
metals used in dental casting
alloys.

PALLADIUM
It is similar to platinum in its

effect.
It hardens as well as whitens
the alloy.
It also raises the fusion
temperature
and
provides
tarnish resistance.
It is less expensive than
platinum, thus reducing cost of
alloy.
It
has
a
density
of
12.02gms/cm3.
Palladium has a higher
melting point of 1552oC,
Boiling point of 3980 oC
Lower CTE which is 11.8106 o
/ C, when compared to gold.

IRIDIUM, RUTHENIUM
They help to decrease the grain size.
They are added in very small quantities (about 100 to 150 ppm).
IRIDIUM
RUTHENIUM
Melting point
2454C
1966C
Boiling point
5300 C
4500 C
CTE
6.810-6/C
8.310-6/C
Density
22.5gm/cm3
12.44 gm/cm3

BASE METALS
These are non-noble metals.
They are invaluable components of dental casting
alloys because of their influences on physical
properties, control of the amount and type of oxidation,
or their strengthening effect.
Such metals are reactive with their environment, and
are referred to as base metals.
Some of the base metals can be used to protect an
alloy from corrosion (passivation).
Although they are frequently referred as non precious,
the preferred term is base metal.
Examples of base metals are chromium, cobalt, nickel,
iron, copper, manganese etc.

COBALT
Imparts
hardness,
strength and rigidity to
the alloy .
It has a high melting
point of 1495C
Boiling point of 2900 C
Density of 8.85 gm/cm3
CTE 13.810-6/oC

NICKEL
Cobalt
and
nickel
are
interchangeable.
It decreases strength, hardness,
modulus of elasticity and fusion
temperature.
It increased ductility.
Bio-incompatibility due to nickel,
which is the most common metal
to cause Contact Dermatitis.
It has a melting point of 1453C
Boiling point of 2730 C ,
Density of 8.9 gm/cm3
CTE 13.310-6/oC

CHROMIUM
Its
passivating
effect
ensures corrosion resistance.
The chromium content is
directly proportional to tarnish
and corrosion resistance.
It reduces the melting point.
It also acts in solid solution
hardening.
It has
melting point of
1875C ,
Boiling point of 2665 C ,
Density of 7.19 gm/cm3
CTE 6.210-6/ oC

COPPER
It is the principal hardener.
It reduces the melting point and
density of gold.
If present in sufficient quantity, it
gives the alloy a reddish colour.
It also helps to age harden gold
alloys.
In greater amounts it reduces
resistance
to
tarnish
and
corrosion of the gold alloy.
Therefore, the maximum content
should NOT exceed 16%.
It has melting point of 1083C
Boiling point of 2595 C ,
Density of 8.96 gm/cm
CTE 16.5 10-6/C .

ZINC
It acts as a scavenger for
oxygen.
Without zinc the silver in
the
alloy
causes
absorption of oxygen
during melting. Later
during solidification, the
oxygen
is
rejected
producing gas porosities
in the casting.
It has a melting point of
420C ,
Boiling point of 906 C ,
Density of 7.133gm/cm3
CTE 39.710-6/o

MOLYBDENUM OR
TUNGSTEN
They
are
effective
hardeners.
Molybdenum is preferred as
it reduces ductility to a lesser
extent than tungsten.
Molybdenum refines grain
structure.
It has
melting point of
2610C ,
Boiling point of 5560 C ,
Density of 10.22 gm/cm3
CTE 4.9 10-6/oC

IRON,BERYLLIUM
They help to harden the metal ceramic gold - palladium
alloys, iron being the most effective. In addition, beryllium
reduces fusion temperature and refines grain structure .
IRON has melting point of 1527C , boiling point of 3000 C ,
density of 7.87 gm/cm3 and CTE 12.3 10-6/oC .

GALLIUM
It
is
added
to
compensate for the
decreased coefficient
of thermal expansion
that results when the
alloy is made silver
free.
The elimination of
silver
reduces
the
tendency for green
stain at the margin of
the
metal-porcelain
interface.

MANGANESE AND SILICON

Primarily oxide scavengers to prevent oxidation of
other elements during melting. They are also hardeners.
MANGANESE has melting point of 650C , boiling point
of 1107 C , density of 1.74 gm/cm3 and CTE 25.2 106 o
/ C , where as SILICON has melting point of 1410C ,
boiling point of 2480 C , density of 2.33 gm/cm 3 and CTE
7.3 10-6/oC .

CARBON:
Carbon content is most critical.
Small amounts may have a
pronounced effect on strength,
hardness and ductility.
Carbon forms carbides with any
of the metallic constituents which
is an important factor in
strengthening the alloy. However
when in excess it increases
brittleness.
Thus, control of carbon content
in the alloy is important.
It has melting point of 3700C
Boiling point of 4830 C
Density of 2.22 gm/cm3
CTE 6 10-6/oC .

BORON
It is a deoxidizer
and hardener, but
reduces ductility.

ALLOYS

ALLOYS
The use of pure metals is quite limited in dentistry. To
optimize properties, most metals commonly used in engineering
and dental applications are mixtures of two or more metallic
elements or in some cases one or more metals and/or
nonmetals. They are generally prepared by fusion of the
elements above their melting points. A solid material formed by
combining a metal with one or more other metals or nonmetals
is called an alloy.
For example, a small amount of carbon is added to iron to
form steel. A certain amount of chromium is added to iron,
carbon, and other elements to form stainless steel, an alloy that
is highly resistant to corrosion. Chromium is also used to impart
corrosion resistance to nickel or cobalt alloys, which comprise
two of the major groups of base metal alloys used in dentistry.

At least four factors determine the extent of solid solubility of

metals; atom size, valence, chemical affinity and chemical
structure.
ATOM SIZE:
If the sizes of two metallic atoms differ by less than
approximately 15% (first noted by Hume-Rothery), they
possess a favorable size factor for solid solubility.
VALENCE:
Metals of the same valence and size are more likely to
form extensive solid solutions than are metals of different
valences.
CHEMICAL AFFINITY:
When two metals exhibit a high degree of chemical
affinity, they tend to form an intermetallic compound upon
solidification rather than a solid solution.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE:
Only metals with the same type of crystal structure can
form a complete series of solid solutions.
The simplest alloy is a solid solution, in which atoms of
two metals are located in the same crystal structure such as
body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc) and
hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

SOLIDIFICATION
AND
CRYSTALLIZATION OF
METALS

SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
The temperature decreases steadily from point A to
point B' . An increase in temperature then occurs from point
B' to point B, at which time the temperature remains
constant until the time indicated at point C is reached.
Subsequently, the temperature of the metal decreases
steadily to room temperature.

The temperature Tf, as indicated by the straight or

plateau portion of the curve at BC, is the freezing point, or
solidification temperature of the pure metal. This is also the
melting point, or fusion temperature. During melting, the
temperature remains constant. During freezing or
solidification, heat is released as the metal changes from
the higher-energy liquid state to the lower-energy solid
state.
The initial cooling of the liquid
metal from Tf to point B' is termed
super cooling. During the super
cooling
process,
crystallization
begins for the pure metal. Once the
crystals begin to form, release of the
latent heat of fusion causes the
temperature to rise to Tf where it
remains until crystallization is
completed at point C.

CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS
Characteristically,
a
pure metal crystallizes from
nuclei in a pattern that often
resembles the branches of a
tree,
yielding
elongated
crystals that are called
Dendrites.
In
three
dimensions, their general
appearance is similar to that
of the two dimensional frost
crystals that form on a
window pane in the winters.

Extensions or elevated areas

(termed protuberances) form
spontaneously
on
the
advancing
front
of
the
solidifying metal and grow into
regions of negative temperature
gradient.
Secondary
and
tertiary protuberances result in
a three dimensional dendritic
structure.

Although dental base metal casting alloys typically

solidify with a dendritic micro-structure, most nobel metal
casting alloys solidify with an Equiaxed polycrystalline
microstructure. The microstructural features in this
figure are called grains, and the term Equiaxed means
that the three dimensions of each grain are similar, in
contrast to the elongated morphology of the dendrites.

All modern noble metal alloys are fine

grained. Smaller the grain size of the metal, the
more ductile and stronger it is. It also produces a
more homogenous casting and improves the
tarnish resistance. A large grain size reduces the
strength and increases the brittleness of the
metal. Factors controlling the grain size are the
rate of cooling, shape of the mold, and
compositon of the alloy.

EQUILIBRIUM PHASE
DIAGRAM FOR
ALLOYS

Equilibrium phase diagram are of central

importance to the metallurgy of alloys, since the
phases that are present in an alloy system for
different compositions and temperatures. Eg Single
phase [isomorphous], eutectic, peritectic and
intermetallic.
Phase diagrams are useful for understanding
the structure of dental alloys and can provide
microstructural predictions when some cast dental
alloys are subjected to heat treatment.
This concept equilibrium phase diagram was
introduced by using the table salt-water system

EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM FOR ALLOYS

Liquidus temperature
Solidus temperature
Liquidus
Solidus

Liquidus temperature Temperature at

which an alloy begins to freeze on cooling
or at which the metal is completely molten
on heating.
Solidus temperature Temperature at
which an alloy becomes solid on cooling
or at which the metal begins to melt on
heating.

This equilibrium phase diagram is for palladium 65% and silver 35%. When an
alloy composition is undergoing equilibrium solidification, the percentage of
the liquid and solid phases present at a given temp. can be calculated by the
lever rule.
Dashed line PO perpendicular to composition line is drawn.
A point on line PO corresponds temp. 1500C, the alloy is clearly in liquid state
Point R - Temp is approx. 1400C and first
solid is formed (crystal), but the composition
is different from 65% Palladium and 35%
Silver. To determine the composition of first
solid extend the tie line to point M. This when
projected to the base line gives the
composition of first solid which is 77% of
Palladium.
Point S - The alloy is midway through its
freezing range, and the composition of solid
and liquid may be determined by drawing tie
line Y-W. These points when projected to the
base line gives liquid composition of 57%
Palladium at point Y and solid composition of
71%Palladium at point W.
Point T As the temp. reaches point T (solid
phase) the concentration is 65% Palladium.

CORING
In the coring process the last liquid to solidify
is metal with lower solidus temperature and
solidifies between the dendrites. Thus under rapid
freezing conditions, the alloy has a corde structure.
The core consists of the dendrites composed of
compositions with higher solidus temperature, and
the matrix is the portion of the micro-structure
between the dendrites that contains compositions
with lower solidus temperatures.

HOMOGENIZATION
For homogenization heat treatment, the cast alloy is
held at a temperature near its solidus to achieve the
maximum amount of diffusion without melting. (This process
required 6 hr. for the alloy). Little or no grain growth occurs
when a casting receives this type of heat treatment eg.
Annealing done mainly for wrought alloys . The ductility of
an alloy usually increases after homogenization heat
treatment . Gold alloys are heat treated by softening (solution
heat treat) or hardening (age hardening heat treat)

EUTECTIC ALLOYS
Many binary alloy systems do not exhibit complete solubility in
both the liquid and the solid states. The eutectic system is an
example of an alloy for which the component metals have limited
solid solubility. Two metals, A and B, which are completely
insoluble in each other in the solid state, provide the simplest
illustration of a eutectic alloy.
In this case, some grains are
composed solely of metal A
and the remaining grains are
composed of metal B. The
salt and water molecules
intermingle
randomly
in
solution, the result upon
freezing is a mixture of salt
crystals and ice crystals that
form independently of each
other.

SILVER-COPPER SYSTEM:

The phase diagram for this system is presented in where 3 phases are
found:
A liquid phase (L)
A silver-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small amount
of copper atoms.
A copper-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small
amount of silver atoms. The and phases are sometimes referred to as
terminal solid solutions because of their locations at the left and right sides
of the phase diagram.
Boundary ABEGD is the solidus
and AED is the liquidus. The major
portion of diagram below 780C is
composed of a two phase region.

Liquidus and solidus meet at point E. This composition (72% silver and
28% copper) is known as the eutectic composition or simply the
eutectic. The following characteristics of this special composition
should be noted.
The temperature at which the eutectic composition melts (779C or
1435F) is lower than the fusion temperature of silver or copper
(eutectic literally means lowest melting).
There is no solidification range for composition E.
The eutectic reaction is sometimes written schematically as follows.
Liquid
solid solution + solid solution

PERITECTIC ALLOY

Liquid + solid solution

solid solution

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS

1. ALLOY TYPES BY FUNCTIONS:

In 1927, the Bureau of Standard established gold casting alloys, type
I to type IV according to dental function with hardness increasing from
type I to type IV.
Type I (Soft):
It is used for fabrication of small inlays, class III and class V
restorations which are not subjected to great stress . These alloys
are easily burnishable.
Type -II (Medium):
These are used for fabrication of inlays subjected to moderate stress,
thick 3/4 crowns, abutments, pontics, full crowns and soft saddles.
Type I and II are usually referred to as inlay gold.
Type -III (Hard):
It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, thin 3/4
crowns, thin cast backing abutments, pontics, full crowns, denture
bases and short span FPDs . Type III alloys can be age hardened.
Type-IV (Extra hard):
It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, denture
bases, bars and clasps, partial denture frameworks and long span
FPDs. These alloys can be age hardened by heat treatment.

Type III and Type IV gold alloys are generally called "Crown
and Bridge Alloys", although type IV alloy is used for high
stress applications such as RPD framework.
Later, in 1960, metal ceramic alloys were introduced and
removable partial denture alloys were added in this
classification.
Metal ceramic alloys (hard and extra hard):
It is suitable for veneering with dental porcelain, copings, thin
walled crowns, short span FPDs and long span FPDs. These
alloy vary greatly in composition and may be gold, palladium,
nickel or cobalt based.
Removable partial denture alloys :
It is used for removable partial denture frameworks. Now a
days, light weight, strong and less expensive nickel or cobalt
based have replaced type IV alloys .

2. ALLOY TYPES BY DESCRIPTION:

By description, these alloys are classified into

A)

CROWN AND BRIDGE ALLOYS

This category of alloys include both noble and base metal

alloys that have been or potentially could be used in the
fabrication of full metal or partial veneers.
1. Noble metal alloys:
i)
Gold based alloy - type III and type IV gold alloys ,
low gold alloys
ii)
Non-gold based alloy-Silver -palladium alloy
2. Base metal alloys:
i) Nickel-based alloys
ii) Cobalt based alloys
3. Other alloys:
i) Copper-zinc with Indium and nickel
ii) Silver-indium with palladium

B) METAL CERAMIC ALLOY

1. Noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding:
i) Gold-platinum -palladium alloy
ii) Gold-palladium-silver alloy
iii) Gold-palladium alloy
iv) Palladium silver alloy
v) High palladium alloy
2. Base metal alloys for porcelain bonding:
i) Nickel -chromium alloy
ii) Cobalt-chromium alloy

C) REMOVABLE PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOY

Although type-IV noble metal alloy may be used,
majority of removable partial framework are
made from base metal alloys:
1. Cobalt-chromium alloy
2. Nickel-chromium alloy
3. Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy
4. Silver-palladium alloy
5. Aluminum -bronze alloy

3.ALLOY TYPE BY NOBILITY

High noble, noble, and predominantly base metal.
Alloy Classification of the American Dental
Association (1984)
ALLOY TYPE

TOTAL NOBLE METAL CONTENT

High noble metal

Contains > 40 wt% Au and > 60 wt

% of the noble metal elements (Au
+ Ir + Os + Pd + Pt + Rh + Ru)

Noble metal

Contains > 25 wt % of the noble

metal elements

Predominantly base metal

Contains < 25 wt % of the noble

metal elements

Classification of alloys for All-Metal restorations, metal ceramic restorations, and

frameworks for removable partial dentures.
Alloy type
All-metal
Metal-ceramic
Removable partial
dentures
High noble

Au-Ag-Cu-Pd

Au-Pt-Pd

Metal ceramic alloys

Au-Pd-Ag (5-12wt% Ag)

Au-Ag-Cu-Pd

Au-Pd-Ag (>12wt%Ag)
Au-Pd (no Ag)
Noble

Ag-Pd-Au-Cu

Pd-Au (no Ag)

Ag-Pd-Au-Cu

Ag-Pd

Pd-Au-Ag

Ag-Pd

Metal-ceramic alloys

Pd-Ag
Pd-Cu
Pd-Co
Pd-Ga-Ag

Base Metal

Pure Ti

Pure Ti

Pure Ti

Ti-Al-V

Ti-Al-V

Ti-Al-V

Ni-Cr-Mo-Be

Ni-Cr-Mo-Be

Ni-Cr-Mo-Be

Ni-Cr-Mo

Ni-Cr-Mo

Ni-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-Mo

Co-Cr-W

Co-Cr-W

Co-Cr-W

Al bronze

4. ALLOY TYPE BY MAJOR ELEMENTS: Gold-based,

palladium-based, silver-based, nickel-based, cobalt-based
and titanium-based .
5. ALLOY TYPE BY PRINCIPAL THREE ELEMENTS: Such
as Au-Pd-Ag, Pd-Ag-Sn, Ni-Cr-Be, Co-Cr-Mo, Ti-Al-V and
Fe-Ni-Cr.
(If two metals are present, a binary alloy is formed; if
three or four metals are present, ternary and quaternary
alloys, respectively, are produced and so on.)
6. ALLOY TYPE BY DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM: Single
phase [isomorphous], eutectic, peritectic and intermetallic.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF DENTAL CASTING

ALLOYS
Biocompatibility
Ease of melting
Ease of casting
Ease of brazing (soldering)
Ease of polishing
Little solidification shrinkage
Minimal reactivity with the mold material
Good wear resistance
High strength
Excellent corrosion resistance
Porcelain Bonding

To achieve a sound chemical bond to

ceramic veneering materials, a substrate
metal must be able to form a thin, adherent
oxide, preferably one that is light in color so
that it does not interfere with the aesthetic
potential of the ceramic. The metal must have
a thermal expansion/contraction coefficient
that is closely matched to that of the
porcelain.

GOLD CASTING ALLOYS

Composition Range (weight percent) of traditional type I to IV alloys and

four metal -ceramic alloys
Main elements

Au

Cu

Ag

Pd

Sn, In, Fe, Zn, Ga

High noble (Au base)

83

10

0.5

Balance

II

High noble (Au base)

77

14

Balance

III

High noble (Au base)

75

11

3.5

Balance

III

Noble (Au base)

46

39

Balance

III

Noble (Ag base)

70

25

Balance

IV

High noble (Au base)

56

14

25

Balance

IV

Noble (Ag base)

15

14

45

25

Balance

Metal-ceramic

High noble (Au base)

52

38

Balance

Metal-ceramic

Noble (Pd base)

30

60

Balance

Metal-ceramic

High noble (Au base)

88

7 (+4Pt)

Balance

Metal-ceramic

Noble (Pd base)

0-6

74-88

Balance

Alloy type

0-15

010

GOLD CASTING ALLOYS:

ADA specification No. 5 classify dental gold casting
alloys as:
1. High Gold Alloys
Type I
Inlay Gold Alloy
Type II
Type III Crown & Bridge Alloy
Type IV
2. Low Gold Alloys
3. White Gold Alloys

HIGH GOLD ALLOY:

These alloys contain 70% by weight or more of gold
palladium and platinum. ADA specification No.5 divides this
into four depending upon mechanical properties.

Type I (Soft):They are weak, soft and highly ductile, useful only in
areas of low occlusal stress designed for simple inlays such
as used in class I, III & V cavities.
These alloys have a high ductility so they can be
burnished easily. Such a characteristic is important since
these alloys are designed to be used in conjunction with a
direct wax pattern technique. Since such a technique
occasionally results in margins that are less than ideal it is
necessary to use a metal that can be burnished. At present,
these are used very rarely.

PROPERTIES
1.
2.

Hardness
Tensile Strength

VHN (50 90)

Quite Low
276 MPa or 40,000 PSi
3.
Yield Strength
180 MPa or 26,000 PSi
4.
Linear Casting Shrinkage
1.56% (according to
Anusavice)
5. Elongation or ductility
46% - William O Brien
18% - Anusavice
COMPOSITION
Au
83%

Ag
10%

Cu
6%

Pt
-

Pd
0.5%

Zn&Ga
balance

Type II (Medium):These are used for conventional inlay or onlay restorations

subject to moderate stress, thick three quarter crowns, pontics and
full crowns. These are harder and have good strength.
Ductility is almost same as that of type I alloy however, yield
strength is higher. Since burnishability is a function of ductility and
yield strength, greater effort is required to deform the alloy. They
are less yellow in color due to less gold.
Properties:
1.
Hardness
VHN (90-120)
2.
Tensile Strength
345 MPa
3.
Yield Strength
300 MPa
4.
Linear Casting Shrinkage
1.37%
5.
Elongation
40.5% - William O Brien
10% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au
Ag
Cu
Pt
Pd
Zn&Ga
77%
14%
7%
1%
balance

Type III (Hard):

Inlays subject to high stress and for crown and bridge in
contrast to type I and type II, this type can be age hardened.
The type III alloy, burnishing is less important than strength.
Properties:
1. Hardness(VHN)
2. Tensile Strength
3. Yield Strength
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage
5. Elongation or ductility
Composition:
Au
Ag
75%
11%

Cu
9%

120 150
360 MPa
331 MPa
1.42%
39.4% - William O Brien
5% - Anusavice
Pt
-

Pd
3.5%

Zn&Ga
balance

Type IV (Extra Hard):

These are used in areas of very high stress, crowns and
long span bridges. It has lowest gold content of all four type (Less
than 70%) but has the highest percentage of silver, copper,
platinium and Palladium. It is most responsive to heat treatment
and yield strength but lowers ductility.
Properties:
1. Hardness
2. Tensile Strength
3. Yield Strength
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage
5. Elongation or ductility
Composition:
Au
Ag
56%
25%

Cu
14%

VHN (150-200)
462 MPa
703 MPa
2.30%
17% - William O Brien
3% - Anusavice
Pt
-

Pd
4%

Zn&Ga
balance

Type

Hardness

Proportional
limit

Strength

Ductility

Corrosion
resistance

II

III

IV

INCREASES

DECREASES

HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS:

Heat treatment of alloys is done in order to
alter its mechanical properties.
Gold alloys can be heat treated if it contains
sufficient amount of copper. Only type III and type
IV gold alloys can be heat-treated.
There are two types of heat treatment.
1. Softening Heat Treatment (Solution heat treatment)
2. Hardening Heat Treatment (Age hardening)

1. SOFTENING HEAT TEMPERATURE

Softening heat treatment increased ductility, but
reduces tensile strength, proportional limit, and hardness.
Indications:
It is indicated for appliances that are to be grounded,
shaped, or otherwise cold worked in or outside the mouth.
Method:
The casting is placed in an electric furnace for 10
minutes at a temperature of 700oC and then it is quenched in
water. During this period, all intermediate phases are
presumably changed to a disordered solid solution, and the
rapid quenching prevents ordering from occurring during
cooling.
Each alloy has its optimum temperature. The
manufacturer should specify the most favorable temperature
and time.

2. HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT

Hardening heat treatment increases strength,
proportional limit, and hardness, but decreases ductility. It is
the copper present in gold alloys, which helps in the age
hardening process.
Indications:
It is indicated for metallic partial dentures, saddles,
bridges and other similar structures. It is not employed for
smaller structures such as inlays.
Method:
It is done by soaking or ageing the casting at a
specific temperature for a definite time, usually 15 to 30
minutes. It is then water quenched. The aging temperature
depends on the alloy composition but is generally between
200C and 450C. During this period, the intermediate
phases are changed to an ordered solid solution.

The proper time and temperature for age

hardening an alloy are specified by the
manufacturer.
Ideally, before age hardening an alloy, it
should first be subjected to a softening heat
treatment to relieve all strain hardening and to start
the age hardening treatment when the alloy is in a
disordered solid solution. This allows better control
of the hardening process.

METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS

METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS4,8,11,15,16,27,31,32,41&43

The main function of metal-ceramic alloys is to reinforce
porcelain, thus increasing its resistance to fracture.
Requirements:
1.They should be able to bond with porcelain.
2.Its coefficient of thermal expansion should be compatible with that of
porcelain.
3.Its melting temperature should be higher than the porcelain firing
temperature. It should be able to resist creep or sag at these
temperatures.
4.It should not stain or discolor porcelain.
The alloys used for metal-ceramic purposes are grouped under two
categories:
i) Noble metal alloys
ii) Base metal alloys.
In case of noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding , addition of
1% base metals (iron, indium, tin etc.) increases porcelain-metal bond
strength, which is due to formation of an oxide film on its surface. It
also increases strength and proportional limit.

PROPERTIES
Modulus of elasticity:
The base metal alloys have a modulus of elasticity approximately twice
that of gold alloys. Thus it is suited for long span bridges. Similarly, thinner
castings are possible.
Hardness:
The hardness of base metal alloys ranges from 175 to 360 VHN. Thus,
they are generally harder than noble metal alloys. Thus, cutting, grinding and
polishing requires high speed and other equipment.
Ductility:
It ranges from 10 to 28% for base metal alloys. Noble metal alloys have
an elongation of 25 to 40%.
Density:
The density of base metal alloys are less, which is approximately 8.0
gms/cm3 as compared to 18.39 gms/cm3 for noble metal alloys.
Sag Resistance:
Base metal alloys resist creep better than gold alloy when heated to high
temperatures during firing.
Bond Strength: Varies according to composition.
Technique Sensitivity: Base metals are more technique sensitive than high
noble metal-ceramic alloys.

The Gold-Platinum-Palladium (Au-Pt-Pd) System:

This is one of the oldest metal ceramic alloy system. But these alloys are not
used widely today because they are very expensive.
Composition:
Gold 75% to 88%
Palladium Upto 11%
Platinum Upto 8%
Silver 5%
Trace elements like Indium, Iron and Tin for porcelain bonding.
Advantages
1. Excellent castability
2. Excellent porcelain bonding
3. Easy to adjust and finish
4. High nobility level
5. Excellent corrosion and tarnish
resistance.
6. Biocompatible
7. Some are yellow in color
8. Not Technique Sensitive
9. Burnishable

Disadvantages
1. High cost
2. Poor sag resistance so not suited for
long span fixed partial dentures.
3. Low hardness (Greater wear)
4. High density (fewer casting per
ounce)

Gold-Palladium-Silver (Au-Pd-Ag) System:

These alloys were developed in an attempt to overcome the major limitations in
the gold-platinum-palladium system (mainly poor sag resistance, low hardness & high
cost)
Two variations on the basic combination of gold, palladium and silver were
created and are identified as either high-silver or low-silver group.
Composition (High Silver Group):
Gold 39% to 53%
Silver 12% to 22%
Palladium 25% to 35%
trace amount of oxidizable elements are added for porcelain bonding.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Less expensive than Au-Pt-Pd alloys 1. High silver content creates potential
2. Improved rigidity and sag resistance.
for porcelain discoloration.
3. High malleability.
2. High Cost.
3. High coefficient of thermal expansion.
4. Less Tarnish and corrosion resistant.

Composition (Low Silver Group):

Gold 52% to 77%
Silver- 5% to 12%
Palladium 10% to 33%
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements for porcelain bonding.
Advantages
1. Less expensive than the Au-Pt-Pd alloys

2. Improved sag resistance

3. High noble metal content
4. Tarnish and corrosive resistant

Disadvantages
1. Silver creates potential for porcelain
discoloration (but less than high
silver group)
2. High cost.
3. High coefficient of thermal
expansion.

Gold-Palladium (Au-Pd) System:

This particular system was developed in an attempt to overcome the major
limitations in the Au-Pt-Pd system and Au-Pd-Ag system. Mainly-Porcelain discoloration.
-Too high coefficient of thermal expansion & contraction.
Composition:
Gold 44% to 55%
Gallium 5%
Palladium 35% to 45%
Indium & Tin 8% to 12%
Indium, Gallium and Tin are the oxidizable elements responsible for porcelain
bonding.
Advantages
1. Excellent castability
2. Good bond strength
3. Corrosion and tarnish resistance
4. Improved hardness
5. Improved strength ( sag resistance)
6. Lower density

Disadvantages
1. Not thermally compatible with high
expansion dental porcelain.
2. High cost

Palladium-Silver (Pd-Ag) System8

This was the first gold free system to be introduced in the
United States (1974) that still contained a noble metal
(palladium). It was offered as an economical alternative to the
more expensive gold-platinum-silver and gold-palladium-silver
(gold based) alloy systems.
Composition: (available in two compo.)
1. Palladium 55% to 60%
Silver 25% to 30%
Indium and Tin
2. Palladium 50% to 55% Silver 35% to 40%
Tin (Little or no Indium)
Trace elements of other oxidizable base elements are also
present.

Advantages
1. Low Cost
2. Low density
3. Good castibility (when torch
casting)
4. Good porcelain bonding,
5. Burnishability
6. Low hardness
7. Excellent sag resistance
8. Moderate nobility level
9. Good tarnish and corrosion
resistance.
10. Suitable for long-span fixed
partial dentures.

Disadvantages
1. Discoloration (yellow, brown or green) may
occur with some dental porcelains.
2. Some castibility problems reported (with
induction casting)
3. Pd and Ag prone to absorb gases.
4. Require regular purging of the porcelain
furnace.
5. May form internal oxides (yet porcelain
bonding does not appear to be a problem)
6. Should not be cast in a carbon crucible.
7. Non-carbon phosphate bonded investments
recommended.
8. High coefficient of thermal expansion.

HIGH PALLADIUM SYSTEM8,11,31,32,41&43

Several types of high palladium systems were originally introduced (Tuccillo, 1987).
More popular composition groups contained cobalt and copper.
Composition (PALLADIUM-COBALT ALLOY):
Palladium 78% to 88%
Cobalt 4% to 10%
(Some high palladium-cobalt alloys may contain 2% gold)
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements (such as gallium and indium) are added for
porcelain bonding.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Low cost
1. More compatible with higher expansion
2. Reportedly good sag resistance
porcelains.
3. Low density means more casting 2. Are more prone to over-heating than
per ounce then gold based alloys.
high Pd-Cu.
4.They Melt and cast easily
3. Produces a thick, dark oxide
5. Good polishability (Supposed
4. Colored oxide layer may cause bluing of the
to be similar to Au-Pd alloys)
porcelain.
6. Reportedly easier to presolder
5. Prone to gas absorption
than Pd-Cu alloys.
6. Little information on long-term clinical
success.

COMPOSITION (PALLADIUM-COPPER ALLOYS)

Palladium 70% to 80%
Copper 9% to 15%
Gold 1% to 2%
Platinum 1%
Some, but not all, high palladium-copper alloys contain small quantities ( 1% to 2%)
of gold and/or platinum. Trace amounts of the oxidizable elements gallium, indium and
tin are added for porcelain bonding.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Good castability
1. Produces dark, thick oxides
2. Lower cost (than gold based alloys) 2. May discolor (gray) some dental
3. Low density means more castings
porcelains.
Per ounce
3. Must visually evaluate oxide color to
4. Tarnish and corrosion resistance
determine if proper adherent oxide was
5. Compatible with many dental
formed.
Porcelains.
4. Should not be cast in carbon crucibles
6. Some are available in one unit ingots.
(electric casting machines)
5. Prone to gaseous absorption.
6. Subject to thermal creep.
7. May not be suitable for long span fixed
partial denture prosthesis.
8. Little information on long term clinical
success.
9. Difficult to polish
10. Resoldering is a problem

BASE METAL ALLOYS

BASE METAL ALLOYS1,3,4,7,9,10,15,16,18,20,23&34

-Nickel based
-Cobalt based
Alloys in both systems contain chromium as the second largest
constituent.
A classification of base metal casting alloys
Co-Cr
Removable
Co-Cr-Ni
Partial denture
Ni-Cr

Base metal
Casting alloy

Surgical
Implant

Co-Cr-Mo
Co-Cr-Mo

No Be. (Class-I)
Fixed
Partial denture

Ni-Cr
Co-Cr (Class-III)

Be. Cont.(Class-II)

Nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) System1,7

These metal-ceramic alloy offer such economy that they are
also used for complete crown and all metal fixed partial denture
prosthesis (Bertolotti, 1983).
The major constituents are nickel and chromium, with a
wide array of minor alloying elements.
The system contains two major groups:
-Beryllium free (class 1)
-Beryllium (class 2)
Of the two, Ni-Cr-Beryllium alloy are generally regarded as
possessing superior properties and have been more popular
(Tuccillo and Cascone,1984).

NICKEL-CHROMIUM BERYLLIUM FREE ALLOYS9,10,23

Composition:
Nickel 62% to 77% Chromium 11% to 22%
Boron , iron, molybdenum, Niobium or columbium and tantalum (trace elements).
Advantages
1. Do not contain beryllium
2. Low cost
3. Low density means more casting
per ounce

Disadvantages
1. Cannot use with Nickel sensitive patients.
2. Cannot be etched. (Cr doesnt dissolve
in acid)
3. May not cast as well as Ni-Cr-Be alloys
4. Produces more oxide than Ni-Cr-Be
alloys.

NICKEL-CHROMIUM-BERYLLIUM ALLOY9,10,23
Composition:
Nickel 62% to 82%
Chromium 11% to 20%
Beryllium 2.0%
Numerous minor alloying elements include aluminum, carbon, gallium, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, silicon, titanium and /or vanadium are present.
Advantages
1. Low cost
2. Low density, permits more
casting per ounce.
3. High sag resistance
4. Can produce thin casting
5. Poor thermal conductor
6. Can be etched to increase
retention

Disadvantages
1. Cannot use with nickel sensitive patients
2. Beryllium exposure may be potentially
harmful to technicians and patients.
3. Proper melting and casting is a learned skill.
4. bond failure more common in the oxide layer.
5. High hardness (May wear opposing teeth)
6. Difficult to solder
7. Ingots do not pool
8. Difficult to cut through cemented castings

DISADVANTAGES OF NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS:

Nickel may produce allergic reactions in some

individuals (contact dermatitis). It is also a potential
carcinogen.
Beryllium which is present in many base metal
alloys is a potentially toxic substance.21,23 Inhalation of
beryllium containing dust or fumes is the main route of
exposure. It causes a condition know as berylliosis. It
is characterized by flu-like symptoms and granulomas
of the lungs.
Adequate precautions must be taken while
working with base metal alloys. Fumes from melting
and dust from grinding beryllium-containing alloys
should be avoided. The work area should be well
ventilated.

Comparative properties of Ni / Cr alloys and type III casting gold

alloys for small cast restorations
Property (Units)

Ni/Cr

Type III gold

alloy

Comments

15

More difficult to produce defect free casting for

Ni/Cr alloys.

As high as
1350C

Normally lower
than 1000C

Casting shrinkage (%)

1.4

Mostly compensated for by correct choice of

investment

Tensile strength (MPa)

600

540

Both adequate for the applications being

considered.

Proportional
(MPa)

limit

230

290

Both high enough to prevent distortion for

applications being considered; not that values
are lower than for partial denture alloys

Modulus of elasticity
(GPa)

220

85

Higher modulus of Ni/Cr is an advantage for

large restoration e.g. bridges and for porcelain
bonded restoration.

Hardness (VHN)

300

150

Ni/Cr more difficult to polish but retains polish

during service

upto 30%

20 (as cast)
10 (hardened)

Relatively large values suggest that burnishing

is possible; however, large proportional limit
value suggests higher forces would be require.

Density (g/cm3)
Fusion temperature

Ductility
(% elongation)

Ni/Cr alloys require electrical

furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.

induction

COBALT CHROMIUM ALLOYS4,6,15,16,22&25

Cobalt chromium alloys have been available since the 1920s. They possess
high strength. Their excellent corrosion resistance especially at high temperatures
makes them useful for a number of applications.
These alloys are also known as satellite because they maintained their shiny,
star-like appearance under different conditions.
They have bright lustrous, hard, strong and non-tarnishing qualities.
APPLICATIONS:
1. Denture base
2. Cast removable partial denture framework.
3. Surgical implants.
4. Car spark plugs and turbine blades.
COMPOSITION:
Cobalt - 55 to 65%
Chromium - 23 to 30%
Nickel - 0 to 20%
Molybdenum - 0 to 7%
Iron - 0 to 5%
Carbon - upto 0.4%
Tungsten, Manganese, Silicon and Platinum in traces.
According to A.D.A specification No. 14 a minimum of 85% by weight of
chromium, cobalt, and nickel is required. Thus the gold base corrosion resistant
alloys are excluded.

PROPERTIES
The Cobalt-Chromium alloys have replaced Type IV
gold alloys because of their lower cost and adequate
mechanical properties. Chromium is added for tarnish
resistance since chromium oxide forms an adherent and
resistant surface layer.

1.Physical Properties:
Density: The density is half that of gold alloys, so they are lighter in
weight.
8 to 9 gms/cm3.
Fusion temperature: The casting temperature of this alloy is
considerably higher than that of gold alloys. 1250oC to 1480oC.
A.D.A. specification No. 14 divides it into two types, based on
fusion temperature (which is defined as the liquidus temperature)
Type-I (High fusing) liquidus temperature greater than
1300oC
Type-II (Low fusing) liquidus temperature lower than 1300oC

2. Mechanical Properties:
Yield strength: It is higher than that of gold alloys. 710Mpa
(103,000psi).
Elongation: Their ductility is lower than that of gold alloys. Depending
on the composition, rate of cooling, and the fusion and mold
temperature employed, it ranges from 1 to 12%.
These alloys work harden very easily, so care must be taken while
adjusting the clasp arms of the partial denture.
Modulus of elasticity: They are twice as stiff as gold alloys
22.5103Mpa. Thus, casting can be made more thinner, thus
decreasing the weight of the R.P.D. Adjustment of clasp is not easy.
Hardness: These alloys are 50% harder than gold alloys 432 VHN.
Thus, cutting, grinding and finishing is difficult.

3. Tarnish and corrosion resistance: Formation of a

layer of chromium oxide on the surface of these alloys prevents
tarnish and corrosion in the oral cavity.
Solutions of hypochlorite and other compounds that are
present in some denture-cleaning agents will cause corrosion in
such base metal alloys. Even the oxygenating denture cleansers
will stain such alloys. Therefore, these solutions should not be
used for cleaning cobalt-chromium base alloys.

4. Casting Shrinkage: The casting shrinkage is much

greater than that of gold alloys (2.3%), so limited use in crown &
bridge.
The high shrinkage is due to their high fusion temperature.

5. Porosity: As in gold alloys, porosity is due to shrinkage and

release of dissolved gases which is not true in case of Co-Cr
alloys. Porosity is affected by the composition of the alloys and its
manipulations.

Comparative properties of Co / Cr alloys and type IV casting gold alloys

for partial denture
Property (Units)

Density (g/cm3)

Fusion temperature

Co/Cr

Type IV gold
alloy

Comments

8-9

15

More difficult to produce defect free

casting for Co/Cr alloys but denture
frameworks are lighter

as high
as
1500C

Normally lower Co/Cr alloys require electrical induction

than 1000C furnace or oxyacetylene equipment.
Can
not
use
gypsum
bonded
investments for Co/Cr alloys

Casting shrinkage
(%)

2.3

1.4

Mostly compensated
choice of investment

Tensile strength
(MPa)

850

750

Both acceptable

Proportional limit
(MPa)

710

500

Both acceptable; can resist stresses

without deformation

Modulus of
elasticity (GPa)

225

100

Co/Cr more rigid for equivalent thickness;

advantage for connectors; disadvantage
for clasps

Hardness (Vickers)

432

250

Co/Cr more difficult to polish but retains

polish during service

15 (as cast)
8 (hardened)

Ductility (%
elongation)

for

by

correct

Co/Cr
clasps
may
fractured
adjustments are attempted.

if

Summary of base metal alloy properties

Property

Ni-Cr without
Be

Ni-Cr with Be

Co-Cr

Strength (MPa)

255-550

480-830

415-550

Ultimate
tensile
strength (MPa)

550-900

760-1380

550-900

% elongation

5-35

3-25

1-12

Modulus of
elasticity
(MPa)

13.8-20.7 x 104

17.2-20.7 x 104

17.2-22.5x104

Vickers
hardness

175-350

300-350

300-500

Casting
temperature
(C)

1430-1570

1370-1480

1430-1590

TITANIUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS4,13,19,45,46&48

Titanium is called material of choice in dentistry. This is attributed to the oxide
formation property which forms basis for corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of
this material. The term 'titanium' is used for all types of pure and alloyed titanium.
Properties of titanium:
-Resistance to electrochemical degradation
-Begins biological response
-Relatively light weight
-Low density (4.5 g/cm3)
-Low modulus (100 GPa)
-High strength (yield strength = 170-480 MPa; ultimate
strength = 240-550 MPa)
-Passivity
-Low coefficient of thermal expansion (8.5 x 106/C)
-Melting & boiling point of 1668C & 3260C
Uses:
Commercially pure titanium is used for dental implants, surface coatings, crowns,
partial dentures, complete dentures and orthodontic wires

Commercially Pure Titanium (CP Ti):

It is available in four grades (according to American Society for Testing and
Materials ASTM) which vary according to the oxygen (0.18-0.40 wt.%), iron (0.200.50 wt%) and other impurities. It has got an alpha phase structure at room
temperature and converts to beta phase structure at 883C which is stronger but
brittle.

TITANIUM ALLOYS
Alloying elements are added to stabilize alpha or the beta
phase by changing beta transformation temperature e.g. in
Ti-6Al-4V48, Aluminum is an alpha stabilizer whereas Vanadium
as well as copper and palladium are beta stabilizer. Alpha
titanium is weld able but difficult to work with at room
temperature. Beta titanium is malleable at room temperature and
is used in orthodontics, but is difficult to weld.
Pure titanium is used to cast crowns, partial denture, and
complete denture.

CAST TITANIUM:
Cast titanium has been used for more than 50 years, and it
has been recently that precision casting can be obtained from
it. The two most important factors in casting titanium based
materials are its high melting point (1668C) and chemical
reactivity. Because of the high melting point, special melting
procedures, cooling cycles, mold materials, and casting
equipments are required to prevent metal contamination,
because it readily reacts with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
at temperatures greater than 600C. So casting is done in a
vacuum or inert gas atmosphere. The investment materials
such as phosphate bonded silica and phosphate investment
material with added trace metal are used. It has been shown
that magnesium based investment cause internal porosity in
casting.

Because of its low density, it is difficult to cast in centrifugal

casting machine. So advanced casting machine combining
centrifugal, vacuum, pressure and gravity casting with electric
arc melting technology have been developed.

Difficulties in casting Titanium :

-High melting point
-High reactivity
-Low casting efficiency
-Inadequate expansion of investment
-Casting porosity
-Difficulty in finishing
-Difficulty in welding
-Requires expensive equipments

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Moffa JP, Guckes AD, Okawa MT and Lilly GE (1973)23 did an evaluation of
nonprecious alloys for use with porcelain veneers and provided quantitative
information about the levels of beryllium produced during the finishing and polishing
of cast base metal dental alloys with there harmful effects.
Shillingburg HT, Hobo S and Fisher DW (1977)39 Studied Preparation design and
margin distortion in porcelain-fused-to-metal restorations.
The results of this study suggested that thermal incompatibility stresses were
likely to cause margin distortion in metal ceramic crowns. However, subsequent
studies support other potential mechanisms, including the effect of excessive sand
blasting time and/or pressure.
Baran GR (1983)7 did an extensive study on metallurgy of sixteen commercially
available Ni-Cr alloys for fixed prosthodontics and compared their alloy
compositions, mechanical properties (yield strength, tensile strength, %elongation
and hardness number), microstructures and clinically relevant considerations for
the use of these alloys.

Carr A.B., Cai Z., Brantley W.A.(1993)11 did a study on new high
palladium casting alloys (generation 1&2). For the five high-palladium
alloys studied, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. An increase in the investment burn out temperature from 1400F to
1500 F had little effect on microstructure and hardness, but grain or
dendritic size was found to vary substantially.
2. Hot tears were more prevalent in the alloys when the higher burnout
temperature was used.
3. Heat treatment simulating porcelain firing cycles for these alloys
generally caused decrease in hardness.
Reisbick NH and Brantley WA (1995)36 conducted a study on
mechanical properties and microstructural variations for recasting low
gold alloys. They concluded that significant decrease in yield strength
and percentage elongation were observed for recasting these alloys but
not in tensile strength when the Type III gold alloys were recasted upto 3
times. Scanning electron microscope examination revealed that the
number of casting defects (principally porosity) increased with the
number of times the alloy was remelted.

Berzins DW, Sarkar NK et al (2000)8 did an in-vitro electrochemical

evaluation of high palladium alloys in relation to palladium allergy.
The high incidence of allergic reaction was associated with Pd-Cu
based alloys. The Pd-skin of these alloys when in contact with saliva
release some Pd++ ions (an allergen) which can trigger the cascade
of biological reaction involved in allergy and hypersensitivity. It is a
time dependent process.
In Pd alloys containing Ag, formation of Ag-Cl film on the alloy surface
is supposed to prevent Pd in coming in contact with oral fluids, having
a masking effect and thus avoiding allergy.
Tufekci E, Mitchell JC et al (2002)43 did a study on spectroscopy
measurements of elemental release from high palladium dental casting
alloys into a corrosion testing medium. A highly sensitive analytical
technique shows that the release of individual elements over a one
month period, suggesting that there may be low risk of biological
reaction with the Pd-Ga alloys than with the Pd-Cu-Ga alloys tested.

Ahmad SAH, Omar MB, Homa D. (2003)1 did an investigation of the

cytotoxic effects of commercially available dental casting alloys and
concluded the following:
1.The high noble alloy Bioherador N was significantly less cytotoxic than all
the base metal alloys tested in this study (Ni-Cr, Co-Cr, Cu-based)
2. The Ni-Cr alloy CB Soft was significantly more cytotoxic than all the Ni-Cr
and Co-Cr alloys tested. This could be related to the content of Cu, low
content
of
Cr
and
absence
of
Mo
in
its
composition.
3. Cu based alloys Thermobond showed a more severe cytotoxic reaction
than all the other alloys.
OBrien WJ (2004)29 Biomaterial Properties Database, University of Michigan:
http://www.lib.umich.edu/dentlib/Dental tables/.

This database provides an electronic reference to the following properties of

dental materials; strength between restorative materials and tooth structures,
BHN, coefficient of thermal friction, coefficient of thermal expansion (linear),
colours of dental shade guide, contact angles, creep, density, dynamic
modulus, elastic modulus, heat of fusion, KHN, melting temperatures and
ranges, %elongation, permanent deformities, proportional limit, shear
strength, tear energy, tear strength, ultimate compressive strength, VHN and
yield strength.

REFERENCES
1. Ahmad SAH, Omar MB and Homa D: An investigation of the cytotoxic effects of
commercially available dental casting alloys.Int J Prosthodont:16:8-12,2003
2. Anusavice KJ, Okabe T, Galloway SE, Hoyt DJ, and Morse PK: Flexure test
evaluation of presoldered base metal alloys. J Prosthet Dent 54:507, 1985.
3. Anusavice KJ, and Shafagh I: Inert gas presoldering of nickel-chromium alloys.
J Prosthet Dent 55: 3137, 1986.
4. Anusavice K.J.: Phillips science of dental materials, 10th ed. W.B. saunders
Co.:111-555,1996
5. Asgar K., Techow B.O., Jacobson J.M.: A new alloy for partial dentures. J
Prosthet Dent. 23 (1): 36-43, 1970.
6. Aydin A.K.: Evaluation of finishing and polishing techniques on surface roughness
of chromium -cobalt castings. J Prosthet Dent. 65 (6): 763-767, 1991.
7. Baran GR: The metallurgy of Ni-Cr alloys for fixed prosthodontics. J Prosthet Dent
50: 639, 1983.
8. Berzins D.W, Kawashima I., Graves R. and Sarkar N.K.: Electrochemical
characteristics of high-Pd alloys in relation to Pd-allergy. Dent Mater 16:266273,2000.
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