Human Development

Nature vs. Nurture

Watson clearly stated that development took

place from a purely nurture stance

Gesell stated that development was a

biological process and believed that
development took place through a series of
genetically determined changes that take
place over the course of ones life

Developmental Studies

In order to study development of human

beings, we use several different designs:
1.

Longitudinal
2. Cross-sectional
3. Sequential

Reflexes of children

Rooting reflex
You

can often stroke

the babys cheek and
see this reflex

Eyeblink Reflex

Reflexive blinking that

protects baby from
bright lights and
foreign objects.

Sucking Reflex

Babies instinctively
begin to suck at
objects placed in the
mouth.

Moro Reflex

When the baby hears a loud noise or their head

falls back, they may instinctively extend arms
out, arch its back and bring arms toward each
other as though they are trying to grab
someone.

Palmar and Plantar Grasp Reflex

Palmar-Curling of the
fingers around an object
that touches the palms.

Sensory Development

Discerning faces - 1 month old

babies appear to be able to
distinguish mothers face from
strangers as long as they hear
the mothers voice as well

At 3 months, baby appears to

distinguish mother from stranger
with face alone

Sight

Babies are born legally blind with a vision of

20/600 you need to be no more than 8 inches
from their face

By 6 months they are at 20/100 you need to be

at least a few feet away

By 9 months they are at 20/60 they can see you

across the room

For the first couple of months, babies will

be able to distinguish patterns, but tend to
respond to blacks and reds

By 5 or 6 months, babies begin to discern

colors

Hearing

By 1 month, babies can distinguish

between the smallest variations in sound

By 6 months, they have developed the

ability to understand and make all of the
sounds necessary for their language
structure

Touch

Newborns have a well-developed sense of

touch and will, over time, come to use this
sense a lot

Babies will begin to explore their world using

tactile sensations, which is why many of the
toys for infants have different textures

Smell

1-day-old infants can distinguish between

some smells

1 -month-old infants can distinguish

between the smell of their mother and that of
a stranger (which is why people tell you to
leave the baby with something that has your
smell on it)

Taste

Newborns appear to prefer the taste of

sweet and salty and dislike bitter-tasting
things

It has been observed that during pregnancy

infants will lick the placenta wall which may
help to develop a sense of taste

Depth Perception

Visual cliff experiment

-

Visual Cliff Experiment

3-month-old babies would have their

heartbeat decrease when approaching the
ledge

6-month-old babies would have their

heartbeat increase when approaching the
ledge would not crawl across, although
some did when mother prompted them to

Temperament

Thomas and Chess did a longitudinal

study on American babies and found:
40%

of the babies were easy

15% of the babies were slow-to-warm-up
10% of the babies were difficult
35% of the babies were a mixture of the three

Follow-up studies later showed:

Easy

babies more likely to be popular, social,

independent and successful

Difficult

babies were more likely to be involved

in the law and we less popular and less wellliked

Lorenz and attachment

Imprinting Formation

of a strong bond of attachment to the

first moving thing seen right after birth

Lorenz

made himself the first thing seen by

goslings and sure enough they followed him

The

goslings follow Lorenz everywhere

The Harlows and attachment

Baby monkeys were separated from their mothers

right after birth
Some

were put in a room with a wire cylinder surrogate

mother
Some were put in a room with a soft, terry-cloth
covered cylinder
When scared, the infants preferred to go to the soft
mother-demonstrated that attachment is about who
provides contact comfort

John Bowlby
1st to study human infants
Found those separated from mothers
upon birth initially cried loudly and threw
tantrums
Later, crying gave way to despair
Finally, infants showed emotional
detachment

Mary Ainsworth

Put children in Strange Situation found three types

of attachment
Secure

type use mothers as a secure based, look around

occasionally, limited exploration in mothers absence. Cried
when mother left and were happy upon return. (65-70%)

Insecure-avoidant

type paid little attention to mother when

she was in room, separated easily from mother. Showed
little distress when she left and ignored her upon return.
(20%)

Insecure-ambivalent type clung to mother and were

reluctant to explore environment. High level of distress
when mom left and still showed distress upon her
return. (10 percent)

Later studies by others revealed a 4th patterndisorganized/disoriented attachment in which the infant
appears confused and were unable to approach the
mother directly for supported even when distressed

Effects of Daycare and Attachment

Some believe that daycare interferes with
attachment
Research has shown no effects on infant
mother attachment
Some research suggest that children in daycare
may be more aggressive though this may be
due to mediocre daycare
High-quality daycare seems to have no negative
effects

Eriksons Eight Stages of Man

Erikson Quote

"...children cannot be fooled by empty praise

and condescending encouragement. They may
have to accept artificial bolstering of their selfesteem in lieu of something better, but what I
call their accruing ego identity gains real
strength only from wholehearted and consistent
recognition of real accomplishment, that is,
achievement that has meaning in their culture"

Eriksons eight stages of man

Erikson is the first psychologist to go beyond

adolescence and recognize that life still changes
beyond this time

This is perhaps because he was practicing at a

time when adolescence was a factor

The eight stages are:

Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth to 1 year
To develop trust infants needs must be
met
Must be played with, cuddled
When care is inconsistent or rejecting,
mistrust develops child becomes
suspicious and fearful

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Ages 2-3
Child developing new motor and mental abilities
Parents should encourage autonomy
If parents are impatient and does things for
child, or if they are critical, the child will begin to
doubt themselves and feel shame
Caution: dont give too much autonomy

Initiative vs. Guilt

Ages 4-5
Child becomes master of his body
Begins tasks like riding a bike, running, cutting
Children who are given the freedom and
opportunity to engage in tasks have sense of
initiative reinforced
Parents should not try to hinder fantasy or
play

If parents make the child feel bad or feel

like a nuisance with their questions, the
child will develop a sense of guilt

Industry vs. Inferiority

Ages 6-11
Elementary school years
Love for opposite sex parent is repressed
Children really begin to learn and play by rules
Concern for how things work, how things are made,
and what things actually do
Children who are encouraged to make things, do
things or build things will develop a sense of industry

Parents who see their child as mischievous or as

messy will help the child develop a sense of
inferiority
School plays a critical role during this periodfriends and teachers play an integral role in
development
It is in this stage that lifelong academic failure can
begin

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Ages 12-18 (some argue up to 23 today)
Seeks to find a romantic partner due to
reawakened Oedipal complex
Begin hypothetical thinking, thinking about
what others think of them
Adolescent works to integrate everything they
know about themselves to create an identity

When an adolescent cannot attain a sense

of personal identity, they show role
confusion, a sense of not knowing who
they are or where they belong to.

Role confusion often seen with delinquent

adolescents or promiscuous young girls

For some, having a negative self identity is

better than having no identity at all

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Ages late adolescence to young to early
middle age
People will reach out to find an intimate
relationship
Able to care about another without losing oneself
in the process
Parents have indirectly contributed to the
individuals success or failure at the earlier
stages.

Generativity vs. Self-Absorption

(Stagnation)
Ages middle age
Concerned with others beyond immediate
family, with future generations, nature of
society
Those who dont meet this need tend to
fall into focus only on their personal needs
and comforts

May see the person beginning to question

how prosperous they were or how well
they have done for themselves.

Men may go through a mid-life crisis;

women may go through empty nest
syndrome

Integrity vs. Despair

Ages elderly
Time for reflection on life
Hope to look back on life with satisfaction
Some look at life as a series of missed
opportunities and now realizes it is too late
These people may look back and have
despair over what might have been

Freud Psychosexual
Development

Stage 1 Oral Stage

(Birth-18 months) erotic
focus is the mouth.
Pleasure

seeking activities
include sucking, chewing,
biting.
If needs are gratified too
much or too little they
continue to seek
gratification as an adult

Stage 2 Anal Stage (1

years to 3) erotic
focus is on the anus
expelling or retaining
feces.
If

child gets locked into this

stage, they continue to
engage in behaviors
associated with retention
or elimination. They may
become anal retentive or
anal expulsive.

Stage 3 Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

erotic focus is on the genital area.
Oedipal/Electra

complex
Problems resolving the complex may lead to
feelings of inferiority toward their own sex and
having to prove something to the opposite sex.

Stage 4 Latency Stage (6 to puberty)

no erotic focus, represses sexuality
Child

represses sexual urges and thoughts

and engages in nonsexual activities such as
developing social and intellectual skills

Stage 5 Genital Stage (Puberty through

adulthood) Erotic focus is on genitals
once again, but more about becoming
sexually intimate with others
If

other stages have been met successfully,

adolescent will now be able to form loving,
successful relationships

Piaget-Cognitive Development

Stage 1 Sensorimotor
Stage (Birth-2)
Infant tries to
coordinate senses
with motor skills
Develops symbolic
thought (mental
images)
Object permanence
around 9 months,
mastered 18 months

Stage 2 Preoperational
Stage (2-7 yrs)
Has

not achieved conservation

the awareness that as something
changes in physical qualities, the
quantity does not change

Centration-they

only have the

ability to focus on one aspect of
a problem at a time

Irreversibility-they

are unable to
envision reversing an action that
has already been done

 Egocentrism-they

are
unable to take anothers
point of view

Animisim-when

child
assigns human qualities
to inanimate objects

Artificialism-the

childs
belief that natural
objects are manmade

Literalism-takes

the
spoken word seriously

Stage 3 Concrete Operational Stage (711 years)

Child

attains conservation, ability to reverse,

they are able to decentrate, experience less
egocentrism, less artificialism, less animism,
less literalism

Stage 4 Formal
Operational
Stage (11 years
and up)
Child

now
achieves
abstract,
hypothetical
thought

What would you do if.?

You are in your last semester of college.

You are close to failing your English class.
You will pass the class if you do very well
on your English final exam.

You are looking through your English

teachers desk for a stapler when you come
across the final exam. Do you take it?

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral

Reasoning

Level 1 Preconventional Stage childs

moral reasoning is based on external
authority
Stage

1 Punishment orientation based on

being or not being punished (ages 1 to 5)
Stage 2 Nave Reward Orientation based
on receiving or not receiving a reward (age 5
to 10)

Level 2 Conventional Level child sees

rules as necessary for maintaining order.
Stage

3 Good boy/good girl-seeks approval

and avoids disapproval from others (8 to 12
years old)

Stage

4 Authority Orientation morals based

on societys rules which should be obeyed.
Rules are very rigid (around 10 to 14 years old)

Level 3 Postconventional Level

working within ones own personal code of
ethics
Stage

5 Social Contract Orientation

Morals based on societys rules, however
rules are now questioned and seen as fallible
(early adolescence)

Stage

6 Individual Principles and

Conscience Orientation Morals based on
justice, where the person does what they
believe is right (adolescence)

Parenting styles

Adolescents respond to
different parenting styles
1. Authoritarian
parents attempt to
shape and control
behavior based on a
set standard of
conduct, usually based
on an absolute
standard. Tend to use
harsh discipline.

2. Authoritative attempt to direct their

childrens activities in a rational and
intelligent way. They are supportive,
loving, and committed, encourage verbal
give-and-take, and discuss rules and
policies with their children. Value being
expressive and independent but are still
demanding. These children tend to be
competent. Girls tend to be achievementoriented and boys tend to be friendly and
cooperative.

3. Permissive parents less controlling

and behave with a non-punishing and
accepting attitude toward childrens
impulses, desires and actions.

Parenting styles tend to influence the

adolescents development of independence
Authoritarian-less

behavior problems, but more

conforming and lower self-esteem
Authoritative-teens more friendly, cooperative, better
adjusted to college
Permissive-less socially assertive and less
achievement oriented
The

better the communication between parents and

children, the less risk-taking behavior children engage
in

Social Development
Up to 1 years child engages in solitary
play
1 to 2 years child engages in parallel play
in which they play side by side, doing the
same thing as playmate, yet there may be no
interaction
15 to 24 months begin to imitate peers, go
back and forth, imitate parents

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
2 years begin to have
preferences in playmates,
however, up to 3 years,
gender of friends does not
seem to matter.

3 to 3 years cooperative play

children begin to play with each
other and interact

3 years social pretend play

imitate adult roles with peers
(doctor/patient)

Gender

Gender roles how

have they changed?
Gender identity-how
does one gain a
sense of their
gender?
Social learning
theory-we become
what we see?

Attachment

Bonding is defined at the tie an infant may

form with a parent in the hours after birth

Attachment is a longer process, one that

is more enduring

How does attachment occur?

Babies will cry, which elicits care from parent
Social smiling 4 to 6 weeks which elicits
joy and pleasure from parent
At 6 months, babies will display pleasure
when parent returns after a short absence
At 9 months child begins to display
separation anxiety (this appears to be a
signal that attachment has formed)

Some studies suggest that children who

attend daycare may do better on tests of
language skills and math skills than
children who stay at home

Attachment during infancy appears to

carry over into later relationships

Gender and
attachment

Typically, attachment
may be stronger with
mother than father

This may be changing

today as more men
are staying home to
be primary caregiver

End part 1

The second part of this PowerPoint is for

the material being covered after the
second test

Kubler-Ross

Stages of Death and Dying

Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance

Adolescence

G. Stanley Hall calls it sturm and drang

Physical development primary sex and

secondary sex characteristics develop

Adolescents tend to develop the imaginary

audience and the personal fable

Piaget and egocentrism

Imaginary audience is when one believes

that others are very concerned about what
is happening with them

Personal fable is an exaggerated sense of

ones uniqueness in life so unique that
no one could possibly understand their
feelings

Gilligan and Kohlberg

Carol Gilligan felt that Kohlberg was

biased towards women in his theory of
moral development
Stated

that women adopt a more care

orientation-more on caring and compassion

Men

develop a more justice orientation-more

on fairness and rights

Erikson and adolescence

Stated that children in adolescence strive

to be free of parental and authoritative
control

Leads to withdrawal from parents and

other family members

Marcia and adolescence

Stated that adolescents end up in 1 of 4

places identity statuses
Foreclosure-when

the child is forced to live out

the dreams of the parents. May lead to
bitterness and resentment
Diffusion-when child has not achieved an
identity and feels confused about who they are
and where they want to go in life. Often take
dead-end jobs

 Moratorium

when child wants to put off their

future for a while so they can explore other
options. May take meaningless jobs for a
while or travel, but they do plan to move on to
college or a more meaningful job

Achievement

go to college or get a
meaningful job know the direction they want
to go

Gilligan and adolescence

Studied female self-esteem

Prior

to adolescence, female and male self-esteem is

similar
During adolescence, female self-esteem drops
Girls tend to doubt themselves more
May be torn between sexual maturity and being the
nice girl
Pressure to engage in close cooperative relationships
which may reduce autonomy

 Girls

tend to fight the feminine ideal those

who are too tall tend to slouch, those who are
too short tend to try to look taller. Often
become preoccupied with looks and weight.

Girls

tend to report a higher incidence of

depression, dissatisfaction with their bodies,
eating disorders and lower self-esteem

Males

tend to have stress at the onset of

adolescence and tend to level off by the time
they are in their teens

Adolescence and maturation

Early versus late maturation

Early

maturing boys tend to be:

More sociable
Be more confident
Be more likely to be involved in sports
Receive more social recognition from adults and
peers
Have others overestimate their competence
Trusted more by parents who question them less

Late maturing males tend to be:

More

anxious
More eager
More attention-seeking
Rated by teachers as less masculine and less
physically attractive
feel socially inferior and feel inadequate
Tend to score lower on achievement tests

Early maturing females tend to be at a

disadvantage in that they:
Tend

to be less outgoing and less popular

May be more anxious and depressed
May be more likely to be drawn into
relationships that they are not emotionally
ready for

Late maturing females tend to be:

Less

popular with boys

Temporarily more well adjusted than early
maturing females

Brain development

Frontal lobe development

lags behind emotional
limbic system=
impulsiveness, emotional
storms, risky behaviors
When frontal lobe matures
so do emotions and
judgment.
Before prefrontal cortex
fully develops, amygdala
has major control

Social development
Move in crowds more
More interaction with peers
Search for intimacy intensifies
Increased distance from family towards
independence

Independence
Maturation into adulthood from childhood
Adolescents become able to accept
responsibility for actions and choices
More time spent among peers than adult
influence (i.e. mandatory school, clubs, sports,
and after school activities) has affect on
independence
Peer pressure (short vs. long term)

Elderly

Psychogeriatrics Study

of the
behavioral changes
and problems that face
the elderly
Changes in physical,
social and emotional
development can lead
to psychological
problems

Elderly

Ironically, the last

part of the brain to
develop, the
prefrontal cortex
(during early 20s),
is the first part of
the brain to go
downhill (mid 20s)

Elderly

This affects fluid

intelligence more than it
does crystallized
intelligence
Fluid

intelligence how
quickly one processes
information in novel
situations
Crystallized intelligencethe knowledge one hasability to use skills and
experience

Elderly

Delirium Characterized

by:

Agitation
Inattention
Disorientation
Memory problems
Confused
Restless
May lead to dementia
or death

Elderly

Psychosis When

logic or
perception of reality is
impaired
Characterized by
hallucinations,
delusions, confusion
Associated with
sensory loss and
social isolation

Elderly

Dementia Progressive

degenerative

cell loss
Affects memory, thinking,
emotions and behavior
50-60% of those with
dementia are diagnosed
with Alzheimers

Elderly

Alzheimers is the
third leading cause of
death in the elderly
(behind heart disease
and cancer)
No cure, but new
treatments may slow
down the progression
of the disease

Elderly

Current estimates are

that 26 million adults
are afflicted with
Alzheimers

By 2050, it is
estimates that almost
100 million adults will
have Alzheimers

Currently, the
cost of
Alzheimers is
$100 million
per year

At this rate, the

U.S. would be
devastated
financially if a
cure is not
found

Alzheimers

Taking baby aspirin may delay the onset of

the disease and potentially
slow the progression

Elderly

The most common

mental disorder in the
elderly is depression

The suicide rate in the

elderly is particularly
high due to illness, loss
of income, retirement,
loss of friends and loved
ones, etc.

Elderly

Suicide is a big
problem amongst the
elderly, yet it is often
ignored
From 1980-1992,
there were over
almost 75,000
suicides by the elderly

Elderly

It is believed that
between 6,000-10,000
elderly people commit
suicide per year
White males are at
most risk for suicide
Most use a firearm,
second is hanging and
third leading method is
overdose
Often looks like an
accidental death from
an overdose of meds