INTRODUCTION TO

ASTRONOMY
What is Astronomy ?
Astronomy is NOT Astrology
Why do we study Astronomy ?

Astronomy - the scientific

study of the Universe
beyond Earth
Astronomy is a true science. It includes the
topics of the history of astronomy, human
space exploration, our Sun and Moon, planets,
other stars, galaxies, and cosmology (the
origin, structure, and fate of the whole
Universe).

Astronomy is a True Science

Astronomy is based on observations and
experiments that can be repeated, and that give the
same results no matter who does the experiment or
makes the observation.
Astronomy makes precise predictions about our
Universe that can be tested to see if the predictions
are true or not.
Astronomy makes use of other well-established
sciences like physics and chemistry.

Astrology is NOT a Science

Seeks to discover hidden knowledge by
the interpretation of omens (like reading tea
leaves).
Results are not repeatable.
Predictions are vague and not testable.
Does not incorporate sciences like
chemistry and physics.

Why do we study Astronomy ?

Natural disasters
Recreation and esthetics
Scientific inquiry and curiosity
Education of an informed society (you !)
Our place in the Universe
Origin and fate of the Universe (Cosmology)
True Science versus science fiction

Natural Disasters
Comet and meteorite impacts, for example.

BOOM !!

Recreation and Esthetics

The Universe is beautiful.

Scientific Inquiry and Curiosity

For example our instruments can see what
our eyes cannot.
Space exploration.

Saturn Different Kinds of Light

Saturn Different Kinds of Light

Ultraviolet

Visible

Infrared

Radio

Space Exploration

Education of an Informed Society

Our Place in the Universe

Where are we?

THE SCALES OF
THE UNIVERSE
The range of objects
we study are from the
extremely small
subatomic particles,
to objects which are
gigantic, such as a
galaxy or the size of
the known universe
itself.

Each division up the

line indicates an
increase in size by
100,000.

The universe is huge, and the sizes and distances of objects in

the universe vary greatly. Therefore we use scientific notation,
which involves powers of ten notation to describe numbers
much smaller or much greater than 1.

Units of Distance
kilometers
for radii of the planets, the Sun, etc.
astronomical units
for distances between solar system bodies
definition: the average distance between the Earth and
Sun (~150,000,000 km = 1.5 x 108 km)
Astronomical Units (AUs) measure distances between
planets (our solar system)
1 AU is about 150 million km

Sun

1 AU

Mercury is the closest at 0.39 AUs while

Neptune is the farthest at 30.06 AUs

 light years
for distances between stars and galaxies
definition: the distance light travels in one year
(~10,000,000,000,000 km = 1013 km = 63,000
AU)
Parsec is used to measure greater distances
between stars and galaxies
1 parsec = 3.26 light years

 Parallax is used to measure the distance to

nearby stars
Parallax: when objects appear to move or
shift due to earths orbit

This method uses trigonometry

nearby stars = 300 light years or less

Parallax

A.U. = Astronomical Unit = distance from Earth to Sun

Stellar Parallax
As Earth moves from one
side of the Sun to the
other, a nearby star will
seem to change its
position relative to the
distant background stars.
d=1/p

d = distance to nearby
star in parsecs
p = parallax angle of that
star in arcseconds

Closer star larger parallax

Example: Using parallax to

determine distance
The bright star Vega has a measured parallax of 0.1
arcsec (p = 0.1)

D(pc) = 1/p() = 1/0.1 = 10 pc

Vega is 10 pc (parsec) from Earth
(remember: 1 pc = 3.26 light years)

Sizes of Astronomical Objects

How can we measure the sizes of
astronomical objects?
The same way that we measure distances
using triangles

The Small-Angle Formula

d
D
206265

D = linear size of object

= angular size of object
(in arcseconds)
d = distance to the object

On November 28, 2000, Jupiter was 609 million

kilometers from Earth and had an angular diameter
of 48.6. Using the small-angle formula, determine
Jupiters actual diameter.
D = 48.6 x 609,000,000 km / 206265 = 143,000 km

The Small-Angle Formula

D = linear size of object

d
D
206265

d = distance to the object

= angular size of object

(in arcsec)

Inverse square law of light is used for

distant stars

the intensity of light falls off as the

square of the distance from the source

12 light years away

250 light years away

5 thousand light years away

500 thousand light years away

5 million light years away

50 thousand light years away

100 million light years away

1 billion light years away

14 billion light years away

Origin and Fate of the Universe

This part of Astronomy is called
Cosmology.
Cosmology seeks a scientific explanation
for how the Universe began and how it
might end (or will it go on forever?).

How did the universe begin??

There are three main theories of
the origin of the universe.
Big Bang theory
Steady State theory
Creation theory

God created the Heavens and the

Earth.
Adam and Eve
Religion

The universe has always been as

it is today
New matter is always being
produced
The universe is continuously
contracting and expanding.

Billions of years ago the universe was

packed in a small space-Primeval
Atom
It explodes and threw matter in all
directions
The explosion caused the formation
of the galaxies.

The Beginning The Big Bang

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

What does the Universe include?
Did the Universe have a beginning?
Is the Universe expanding, fixed in size, or
contracting?
Will the Universe last forever?

You will discover

Cosmology, which seeks to explain how the
Universe began, how it evolves, and its fate.
The best theory we have for the evolution
of the Universe the Big Bang.
How astronomers explain the overall
structure of the Universe.
Our understanding of the fate of the
Universe.

In the Beginning the Big Bang

The Universe began 13.7 billion years ago with an
event called the Big Bang.
All of space-time, matter, and energy were created at
the Big Bang.
The left-over energy from the Big Bang can be
detected today as the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation.
The temperature of this radiation is only a few
degrees above absolute zero.

The Beginning The Big Bang

In Search of The Earliest Photons

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

(WMAP) satellite, launched in 2001

WMAPs Baby Picture of the Universe

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

The Universe is Expanding

The Redshift of Superclusters shows us that
the Universe is expanding. This Redshift is
called the Cosmological Redshift, because
it is caused by the expansion of space.
The farther away a galaxy is from us, the
faster it moves away from us.

The Expansion of the Universe

Cosmological Redshift

Space itself is expanding.

Expanding Cake Analogy

Just as all the chocolate chips move apart as the cake rises,
all the superclusters of galaxies move away from each other
as the space of the Universe expands.

The Observable Universe

The cosmic light horizon today is about 13.7 billion

light-years away in all directions.

HST Galaxies >13 Billion LY Away

This HST Ultra

Deep Field
Telescope image
shows some of
the most distant
galaxies we
have seen.

Early Universe Temperature Variations

Tiny temperature fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background

Radiation are related to the large-scale structure of the Universe today,
indicating where Superclusters and voids grew.

The First Stars much larger than the Sun with

much shorter lives

The burst of star formation that occurred within a few

hundred million years after the Big Bang.

Proto-Galaxy Formation

Hubble and Keck telescope images of two groups of stars that are
believed to be proto-galaxies, from which bigger galaxies grew

Creation of Spiral and Elliptical Galaxies

If the rate of star
formation was
low, then a spiral
galaxy formed.

If the rate of star

formation was
high, then an
elliptical galaxy
formed.

A galaxy begins as a huge cloud of primordial gas

that collapses gravitationally.

The Fate of the Universe

The fate of the Universe depends on the shape
of space-time.
The shape of space-time is determined by how
much total matter and energy there is in the
Universe.
Space-time could have one of three shapes:
Sphere = positive curvature = closed.
Our floor = no curvature = flat.
Saddle = negative curvature = open.

Possible Shapes of Space-time,

and the Fate of the Universe

Closed
Universe
would
collapse.

Flat
Universe
could slowly
expand
forever.

Open
Universe
would expand
forever.

Cosmic Microwave Background indicates that Space-time is

Flat Universe could slowly expand forever

BUT dimmer distant Supernovae mean the

expansion of the Universe is speeding up.

100 billion years

from now the
Universe will appear
frozen in time as we
look out into space.
Only the light from
the Local Group of
galaxies will remain
visible, if anyone is
still around to see it.

Expansion of the Universe is speeding up

Very distant Type 1a Supernovae are not as bright as
they should be.
This means the expansion of the Universe is speeding
up instead of slowing down or staying the same.
There is something really weird called Dark Energy
(not the same as Dark Matter) that is causing this
acceleration.
Dark Energy acts like anti-gravity, pushing the
Universe apart.
We do not know what this Dark Energy is, but it
makes up 73% of the total energy/matter of the
Universe.

Composition of the Universe

Suppose all the matter and energy in the Universe is $100 in
your wallet or purse.
$73 would be Dark Energy the mysterious energy thats
pushing the Universe apart faster and faster.
$23 would be Dark Matter matter that doesnt give off any
kind of radiation, so we cant see it but it does have gravity.
So out of your Universe of $100, $96 represents Dark Energy
and Dark Matter that have yet to be identified.
Only $4 would be visible matter the regular stuff we can see,
like stars, gas clouds, and dust the same stuff were made of.
Of the visible matter ($4), only one-tenth of it shines as stars.
Thats 40 cents out of your total $100. The rest of the visible
matter is gas clouds and dust.

Composition of the Universe

WHAT DID YOU THINK?

What does the Universe include?
It is all the matter, energy, and space-time that will
ever be detectable from the Earth or that will ever
affect us.
Did the Universe have a beginning?
Yes, it occurred about 13.7 billion years ago in an
event called the Big Bang.
Is the Universe expanding, fixed in size, or
contracting?
The Universe is expanding, faster and faster.
Will the Universe last forever?
Current observations support the belief that it will last
(expand) forever.

The universe is made up of

millions of Galaxies.

A galaxy is a swarm of billions of

stars, clouds and dust rotating
around a central point.

Our galaxy is
called the Milky
Way

Our
WHOLE
solar system
is located
right about
here

100 billion years

from now the
Universe will
appear frozen in
time as we look
out into space.
Only the light
from the Local
Group of galaxies
will remain
visible, if anyone
is still around to
see it.

True Science versus

Science Fiction
Some astronomy stuff may be weird, BUT
ITS TRUE.
Black Holes.
Radiation from the beginning of the Universe.

Science fiction is just weird.

Favorite movies.

A Spinning Black Hole

Radiation from the Beginning of the

Universe 13.7 billion years ago

History of Astronomy
Where did real astronomy begin?
What did we know about astronomy 2000+ years ago
Who discovered some of the basic principles of
Astronomy and how?
What tools did they use back then?
Why did they get into Astronomy?
When were maps of sky created?
When were constellations invented?

History of Astronomy
Why were people interested in Astronomy?

Calendars
Planting/Farming depends on seasons
Religion & Astrology
Navigation
Timekeeping
Land Surveying

History of Astronomy
Timelines:
Most of us think Astronomy really began with Galileo,
Copernicus, Brahe, etc.
Most of us think Astronomy really began with the use of a
telescope and modern technology.
Most facts about Astronomy were known thousands of
years ago without the sophisticated tools we have today
but, they did use sophisticated reasoning and mathematics

History of Astronomy
Archeoastronomy
The study of Ancient Astronomy in ancient
civilizations
We study ancient sites and ruins to determine what
these civilizations knew about astronomy
We dont have record of who set up the ruins we study
today
We do know a little about what they knew by looking
at the ruins and studying the geometry and alignment
of these sites.

History of Astronomy
Some famous Archaeoastronomy Sites:
Nabta: Megalithic Site 1000 years before
Stonehenge
Circles of stones marking solstices and cardinal
points more than 6000 years ago in Southern Egypt

Stonehenge: 3100 BC to 2000BC

Mesoamerican Site: 1500 BC to 1500 AD
Nazca Lines in Peru: 300 BC to 800 AD

History of Astronomy
Archaeoastronomy ended about 600 BC in
Greece
After archaeoastronomy, we had written
records of the events that occurred.
Not always 100% accurate, but astronomers
began writing out their reasoning

History of Astronomy
Who were the earliest Astronomers?

Thales of Miletus, Asia Minor

Pythagoras of Samos
Democritus of Abdera, Greece
Oenopides of Khios, Greece
Aristotle or Athens, Greece
Aristarchus of Samos
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, North Libya
Hipparchus of Rhodes
Ptolemy of Alexandria, Egypt

History of Astronomy
Thales: 624 to 547 BC
Said to have predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC
Greeks already knew about the 19 year cycle
for lunar eclipses
Measured the height of the pyramids by
understanding similar triangle theory:
Measure the shadow length at the time of day
when your shadow is as long as you are.
Developed early geometric theorems

History of Astronomy
Pythagoras: 580-500 BC
Invented some of the math that was needed to
get a scientific basis for astronomical calculations
Pythagorean Theorem!!!!
First to note that the morning and evening stars
were both Venus
Built upon Anaximanders ideas, who postulated
that planets and stars go around in perfect circles.
Still believe geocentric model of universe

History of Astronomy
Democritus: 470 380 BC
Developed the concept of the atom: all things
were made of microscopic and indivisible,
indestructible atomic particles
He understood that the Milky Way was a large
collection of stars and also thought space was
limitless

History of Astronomy
Oenopides: 450 BC
Popularized the 12 signs of the Zodiac
Probably copied them from the Assyrians in Mesopotamia
(Archaeoastronomy!!!!)
First to fix the angle of the ecliptic with the celestial equator
called it 24 degrees (Earths Tilt is actually 23 degrees)
Fixed the year to be 365 days long
Postulated that the Great Year the number of years when the
motion of the sun and the moon exactly repeated their motion
was 59 years
Oenopides result lead to a lunar month of 29.53013 days, which is
remarkably close to the modern value of 29.53059 days

History of Astronomy
Aristotle: 384 322 BC

Did his best work on classifying plants and animals

Took a qualitative approach to science
Did not use mathematics in his studies
Earth, air, fire and water were the elements
Believed the earth was immobile (Geocentric)
Stars and planets use the Pythagoras circular spheres model
Re-discovered in the late Middle Ages, and used to impede
observational science

History of Astronomy
Aristarchus: 310-230 BC
Believed in the Heliocentric Universe
Estimated the distance of the moon and sun
Utilized excellent mathematical principles but
lacked the tools to get the observational data
correct
All of his written records were destroyed in the
fire of the library in Alexandria

History of Astronomy
Aristarchus Mathematical Genius
Method of determing distance between sun,
moon and earth

History of Astronomy
Aristarchus Measuring the Suns Size

History of Astronomy
Eratosthenes: 276-197 BC

Developed a map of the world

Developed a way to find prime numbers
Estimated the circumference of the earth
Measured the tilt of the earth
Suggested that a leap day be added to the
calendar every 4th year

History of Astronomy
Eratosthenes Measurements

History of Astronomy
Hipparchus: 190 120 BC
Introduced the idea of 360 degrees in a circle
Calculated the length of a year within 6.5 minutes
Calculated the moons distance at between 59 & 67 radii correct
answer is 60!
Discovered precission and calculated it at 46 seconds per years
correct is 50.26 seconds per year
Developed a star catalogue of 850 stars used later by Ptolemy
Developed the currently used magnitude scale of 1 6
Discovered the first nova
Measured the distance to the moon using parallax
Used different views of a solar eclipse
Small angle formula
Distance is about 240,000 miles

History of Astronomy
Claudius Ptolemy: 85-165 AD
Developed the most sophisticated model of concentric
circles (epicycles) to determine planetary motion
He followed the geocentric theory
The geocentric theory is the theory that the sun, planets and
all the other stars orbit around the earth. The earth is at the
center of the universe!

His Almagest had most of Aristotles ideas in it, with a

geocentric approach
Because it survived long periods of upheaval and wars, it
was the astronomy manual until the time of Columbus

The History of Astronomy

What did we know back then that was correct, but
lost (people didnt believe it).

The earth is round

Circumference/Diameter of the Earth
Distance to the Moon
The Solar System is Heliocentric
The theory that the earth, along with the other planets orbits
the sun!

An estimate of the distance to the sun

Precision of the equinoxes
Length of the year to a high precision

The History of Astronomy

The story does not end here..
Most of what was known was lost again after this high
period of astronomy in Greece, Turkey and Egypt
Romans were not much interested in astronomy or astrology
Arabs conquered many of these countries starting in the 7 th
century, and preserved a lot of the work done by the
ancients, refined it, and passed it back to the western worlds
at the end of Middle Ages
Thus it became the foundation of the work and ideas that
became prevalent in the 15th & 16th centuries

Basic Concepts of Astronomy

A constellation is a group of stars that forms some
sort of figure when put together
88 official constellations recognized by the
International Astronomical Union
Thousands of years ago, they were names for
animals or mythological creatures
Astronomers now use them to distinguish different
areas of the sky. For example, by saying a planet is
located in Leo, we know what area of the sky to
look in.

Basic Concepts of Astronomy

88 recognized constellations can be found behind
your glossary in this booklet. Their declination
and right ascension is also listed, along with
meaning.
Asterisms are popular, unofficial names for these
constellations

Basic Concepts of Astronomy

Precession of Earth
Currently Earth is tilted 23 degrees, pointed right at Polaris
(The North Star)
Every 26,000 years the Earths axis traces out an imaginary
circle, very, very slowly!!!
During this shift, the tilt of Earth will go from pointing
directly at Polaris, to pointing at Vega and then pointing at
Thuban.
The motion of Earths axis is called Precession
This is the reason your astrological signs do not necessarily
match up with the rising at setting of the constellations
anymore.

Basic Concepts of Astronomy

Precession of Earth.

Th
ub
an

Veg
a
(14,
000
AD)

Earth-Sun Relationship
Vocab Words

Rotation
Revolution
Terrestrial Globe
Latitude
Longitude
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Equator
Prime Meridian
Autumnal Equinox
Vernal Equinox
Winter Solstice
Summer Solstice

Earth-Sun Relationship
Terrestrial Globe is the spherical
representation of the earth.
The imaginary line that separates the earth
into a Northern and Southern hemisphere
is the equator.
The imaginary line that separates the earth
into a an Easter and Western hemisphere is
the Prime Meridian.
Latitude measures distances North and
South of the equator.
Longitude measures distances East and
West of the Prime Meridian.

Earth-Sun Relationship
Earth is constantly moving in two ways
It is taking one rotation around itself each day
A rotation is when an object spins around itself

It is taking one revolution around the sun each

year 365.25 days
A revolution is when an object travels around
another object

Earth-Sun Relationship
The earths rotation is what gives us day
and night

Earth-Sun Relationship
Earths revolution is what gives us seasons,
but only because the EARTH IS TILTED
AT 23 DEGREES!!!!
Earth is closest to the sun in its revolution
in December and furthest in its revolution in
June!

Earth-Sun Relationship
Sun appears to shine directly in different
locations throughout the year.
Goes from shining at the equator to shining
at the Tropic of Cancer, back to the equator,
down to the Tropic of Capricorn and then
back to the equator
Repeats this cycle over and over again!

Earth-Sun Relationship
Tropic of Cancer is 23 degrees North latitude
Furthest north the sun appears to shine directly!
Shines here around June 21st

Tropic of Capricorn is 23 degrees South

latitude
Furthest south the sun appears to shine directly!
Shines here around December 21st

Earth-Sun Relationship
Summer Solstice

First day of Summer

The day your hemisphere is tilted directly towards the sun
Longest day of the year
Northern Hemisphere it is around June 21st, Southern Hemisphere
it is around December 21st

Winter Solstice

First day of Winter

The day your hemisphere is tilted directly away from the sun
Shortest day of the year
Northern Hemisphere it is around December 21 st, Southern
Hemisphere is it around June 21st

Earth-Sun Relationship
Autumnal Equinox
First day of Fall
The day the sun is shining directly at the equator, but moving away
from the hemisphere you are living in (towards winter)
12 hours of daylight, 12 hours of darkness
Northern Hemisphere it is around September 21 st, Southern
Hemisphere it is around March 21st

Vernal Equinox
First day of Spring
The day the sun is shining directly at the equator, but moving toward
the hemisphere you are living in (towards summer)
12 hours of daylight, 12 hours of darkness
Northern Hemisphere it is around March 21 st, Southern Hemisphere it
is around September 21st

Earth-Sun Relationship

Earth-Sun Relationship
Apparent altitude of the sun