SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS

Sampling Concepts
Population: Population refers to any group of people or objects that form

the subject of study in a particular survey and are similar in one or more
ways.
Element: An element comprises a single member of the population.
Sampling frame: Sampling frame comprises all the elements of a

population with proper identification that is available to us for selection at

any stage of sampling.
Sample: It is a subset of the population. It comprises only some elements

of the population.
Sampling unit: A sampling unit is a single member of the sample.
Sampling: It is a process of selecting an adequate number of elements

from the population so that the study of the sample will not only help in
understanding the characteristics of the population but will also enable us
to generalize the results.
Census (or complete enumeration): An examination of each and every

element of the population is called census or complete enumeration.

Advantages of Sample over

Census
Sample saves time and cost.
A decision-maker may not have too much of time to

wait till all the information is available.

There are situations where a sample is the only

option.

The

study of a sample instead of complete

enumeration may, at times, produce more reliable
results.

A census is appropriate when the population size is

small.

Sampling vs Non-Sampling Error

Sampling error: This error arises when a sample is not

representative of the population.

Non-sampling error: This error arises not because a sample is

not a representative of the population but because of other

reasons. Some of these reasons are listed below:

Plain lying by the respondent.

The error can arise while transferring the data from the questionnaire to the

spreadsheet on the computer.

There can be errors at the time of coding, tabulation and computation.

Population of the study is not properly defined
Respondent may refuse to be part of the study.
There may be a sampling frame error.

Classification of Sampling
Fig. 11.2
Techniques
Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques

Convenience
Sampling

Simple
Random
Sampling

Judgmental
Sampling

Systematic
Sampling

Probability
Sampling Techniques

Quota
Sampling

Stratified
Sampling

Snowball
Sampling

Cluster
Sampling

Other Sampling
Techniques

Sampling Design
Probability Sampling Design - Probability sampling
designs are used in conclusive research. In a probability
sampling design, each and every element of the
population has a known chance of being selected in the
sample.
Types of Probability Sampling Design
Simple random
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Each element in the population has a known and

equal probability of selection.

Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known
and equal probability of being the sample actually
selected.
This implies that every element is selected
independently of every other element.

How to use random number table to select a random sample

Systematic Sampling
The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then

picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.

The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population
size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of
interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of
the sample.
If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern,
systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness of the
sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a
sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is
100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for
example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23,
123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.

Systematic sampling

Stratified Sampling
A two-step process in which the population is

partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.

The strata should be mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive in that every population
element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be
omitted.
Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a
random procedure, usually SRS.
A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.

Stratified Sampling
The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as

possible, but the elements in different strata should be as

heterogeneous as possible.
The stratification variables should also be closely related to the
characteristic of interest.
Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the
stratification process by being easy to measure and apply.
In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that
stratum in the total population.
In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that
stratum

Stratified sampling I
A three-stage process:
Step 1- Divide the population into

homogeneous, mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive subgroups or strata
using some stratification variable;
Step 2- Select an independent simple

random sample from each stratum.

Step 3- Form the final sample by

consolidating all sample elements chosen in

step 2.

Stratified samples can be:

Proportionate: involving the

selection of sample elements from

each stratum, such that the ratio of
sample elements from each stratum
to the sample size equals that of the
population elements within each
stratum to the total number of
population elements.
Disproportionate: the sample is

disproportionate when the above

mentioned ratio is unequal.

Selection of a proportionate Stratified Sample

To select a proportionate stratified sample of 20 members of the Island Video Club which has
100 members belonging to three language based groups of viewers i.e., English (E), Mandarin
(M) and Others (X).
Step 1: Identify each member from the membership list by his or her respective language groups
00 (E )
01 (E )
02 ( X )
03 (E )
04 (E )
05 (E )
06 (M)
07 (M)
08 (E )
09 (E )
10 (M)
11 (E )
12 ( X )
13 (M)
14 (E )
15 (M)
16 (E )
17 ( X )
18 ( X )
19 (M)

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

(M)
(X)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(X)

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

(E )
(X)
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(X)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(M)
(M)

60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79

(X)
(M)
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(M)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(M)
(E )

80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99

(M)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(X)
(E )
(X)
(E )
(M)
(E )
(E )
(X)
(E )
(E )
(M)
(E )

Selection of a proportionate stratified sample II

Step 2: Sub-divide the club members into three homogeneous sub-groups or strata by the
language groups: English, Mandarin and others.
EnglishLanguage
Stratum
00 22 40 64 82
01 24 43 67 85
03 26 45 69 86
04 29 48 70 89
05 30 49 71 91
08 31 50 73 93
09 32 54 75 94
11 34 55 76 96
14 36 57 79 97
16 37 63 81 99

Mandarin Language
Stratum
06 35 66
07 44 68
10 47 72
13 51 77
15 53 78
19 56 80
20 58 83
25 59 87
27 61 92
33 62 98

Other Language
Stratum
.
02 42
12 46
17 52
18 60
21 65
23 74
28 84
38 88
39 90
41 95

1. Calculate the overall sampling fraction, f, in the following manner:

f = n = 20 = 1 =
N 100
5

0.2

where n = sample size and N = population size

Selection of a proportionate stratified sample III

Cluster Sampling
The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and

collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.

Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability
sampling technique such as SRS.
For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).
Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.
In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.

Example : One-stage and two-stage Cluster sampling

Consider the same Island Video Club example involving 100 club members:
Step 1: Sub-divide the club members into 5 clusters, each cluster containing 20 members.
Cluster
No.
1
2
3
4
5

English
00, 22, 40, 64, 82
01, 24, 43, 67, 85
03, 26, 45, 69, 86
04, 29, 48, 70, 89
05, 30, 49, 71, 91
08, 31, 50, 73, 93
09, 32, 54, 75, 94
11, 34, 55, 76, 96
14, 36, 57, 79, 97
16, 37, 63, 81, 99

Mandarin
06, 35, 66
07, 44, 68
10, 47, 72
13, 51, 77
15, 53, 78
19, 56, 80
20, 58, 83
25, 59, 87
27, 61, 92
33, 62, 98

Others
02, 42
12, 46
17, 52
18, 60
21, 65
23, 74
28, 84
38, 88
39, 90
41, 95

Step 2: Select one of the 5 clusters. If cluster 4 is selected, then all its elements (i.e. Club
Members with numbers 09, 11, 32, 34, 54, 55, 75, 76, 94, 96, 20, 25, 58, 59, 83, 87, 28, 38, 84,
88) are selected.
Step 3: If a two-stage cluster sampling is desired, the researcher may randomly select 4 members
from each of the five clusters. In this case, the sample will be different from that shown in step 2
above.

Strengths and Weaknesses of

Basic
Techniques
Table Sampling
11.3
Technique

Strengths

Weaknesses

NonprobabilitySampling
Conveniencesampling

Leastexpensive,least
timeconsuming,most
convenient
Lowcost,convenient,
nottimeconsuming
Samplecanbecontrolled
forcertaincharacteristics
Canestimaterare
characteristics

Selectionbias,samplenot
representative,notrecommendedfor
descriptiveorcausalresearch
Doesnotallowgeneralization,
subjective
Selectionbias,noassuranceof
representativeness
Timeconsuming

Easilyunderstood,
resultsprojectable

Difficulttoconstructsampling
frame,expensive,lowerprecision,
noassuranceofrepresentativeness.
Candecreaserepresentativeness

Judgmentalsampling
Quotasampling
Snowballsampling
Probabilitysampling
Simplerandomsampling
(SRS)
Systematicsampling

Stratifiedsampling
Clustersampling

Canincrease
representativeness,
easiertoimplementthan
SRS,samplingframenot
necessary
Includeallimportant
subpopulations,
precision
Easytoimplement,cost
effective

Difficulttoselectrelevant
stratificationvariables,notfeasibleto
stratifyonmanyvariables,expensive
Imprecise,difficulttocomputeand
interpretresults

Sampling Design
Non-probability Sampling Designs - In case of
non-probability sampling design, the elements of
the population do not have any known chance of
being selected in the sample.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Design
Convenience sampling
Judgemental sampling
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling

Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are
selected based on the judgment of the researcher.
test markets
purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing

research
bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior
research
expert witnesses used in court

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental

sampling.
The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.

Control
Characteristic
Sex
Male
Female

Population
composition

Sample
composition

Percentage

Percentage

Number

48
52
____
100

48
52
____
100

480
520
____
1000

Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of
respondents is selected, usually at random.
After being interviewed, these respondents are

asked to identify others who belong to the target

population of interest.
Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.

Determination of Sample Size

The size of the population does not influence the size of the
sample
Methods of determining the sample size in practice:
Researchers may arbitrary decide the size of sample

without giving any explicit consideration to the accuracy of

the sample results or the cost of sampling.
The total budget for the field survey in a project proposal is

allocated.

Researchers may decide on the sample size based on

what was done by the other researchers in similar studies.

Determination of Sample Size

Confidence interval approach for determining the size of the
sample
The following points are taken into account for determining the
sample size in this approach.
The variability of the population: Higher the variability as

measured by the population standard deviation, larger will be the

size of the sample.

The confidence attached to the estimate: Higher the confidence

the researcher wants for the estimate, larger will be sample size.

The allowable error or margin of error: Greater the precision the

research seeks, larger would be the size of the sample.

Determination of Sample Size

Sample size for estimating population mean The formula for determining sample size is given
as:
Where

n = Sample size
= Population standard deviation
e = Margin of error
Z = The value for the given confidence interval

Determination of Sample Size

Sample size for estimating population proportion
1. When population proportion p is known

2. When population proportion p is not known