CH 02

Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 1
Introduction to Medical
Terminology
Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition
Bonnie F. Fremgen and Suzanne S. Frucht
Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Multimedia Directory
Slide 7Medical Terminology Elements Video
Slide 47Medical Transcriptionist Video
Slide 49Taking Patient Histories Video 1
Slide 50Taking Patient Histories Video 2
Slide 62HIPAA Video


Medical Terminology at a Glance

Studying
medical terminology is like learning a

new language
Basic rules for building terms will help you
both build and translate many different words
You must be able to put words together or
build words from their parts
Like piecing together a puzzle


Understanding Medical Terms

It
is impossible to memorize all of the

thousands of medical terms
You can distinguish the meaning of many
different words by analyzing the word parts
Word roots
Combining forms
Prefixes
Suffixes


Figure 1.1 Nurse completing a patient report. Healthcare workers use

medical terminology in order to accurately and efficiently communicate
patient information to each other.
Copyright
by Pearson
Education,Inc.
Inc.
Copyright
20092009
by Pearson
Education,
Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey 07458
Basic Word Parts

Word
root is the fundamental meaning of the
term
Prefixes and suffixes modify the word root
Combining vowels connect other word parts
Always exceptions to rules


Medical Term Elements Video
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Medical Terms Are Built from Word

Parts
Word Part
Word root
Prefix
Suffix
Combining
form
Example (Meaning)
cardiogram (record of the heart)

pericardium (around the heart)
carditis (inflammation of heart)
cardiomyopathy (heart muscle
disease)


Word Root
Foundation
of the term
General meaning of word
Often gives body system or part
Or
cardi = heart
may be an action
cis = to cut


Word Root
Medical
terms may have more than one root
gastroenteritis
Many
medical terms built without a word root
hyper = prefix meaning excessive

trophy = suffix meaning development
hypertrophy = excessive development


Combining Vowels
Make
it possible to pronounce long terms

Usually an o
Combine two word parts:
Between two word roots
Between word root and suffix


Combining Vowel Rules

Between
word root and suffix

If the suffix begins with a vowel
Do not use a combining vowel
Arthritis, not arthroitis
If
the suffix begins with a consonant
Use a combining vowel

Arthroscope, not arthrscope


Combining Vowel Rules

Combining
vowel is typically kept between two
word roots
Even if the second word root begins with a
vowel
gastroenteritis, not gastrenteritis


Combining Form
Typically
used to write word roots

Also use the word root/combining vowel format
Examples:
cardi/o
arthr/o
gastr/o


Common Combining Forms

aden/o
gland
carcin/o cancer
cardi/o heart
chem/o chemical
cis/o to cut
dermat/o skin

enter/o
small
intestine
gastr/o stomach
gynec/o female
hemat/o blood
hydr/o water

Common Combining Forms

immun/o
immune
laryng/o voice box
morph/o shape
nephr/o kidney
neur/o nerve
ophthalm/o eye

ot/o
ear
path/o disease
pulmon/o lung
rhin/o nose
ur/o urine,
urinary system

Prefix
Added
to the front of a term

May add meaning such as:
location of organ
number of parts
time (frequency)

sub = below
mono = one
post = after

Prefix
Not
all medical terms have a prefix

When written by itself, followed by a hyphen
intra
hyper
multi


Common Prefixes
a
an
ante
anti
auto
brady
dys
without, away from

without
before, in front of
against
self
slow
painful, difficult


Common Prefixes
endo
epi
eu
hetero
homo
hyper
hypo
within, inner
upon, over
normal, good
different
same
over, above
under, below


Common Prefixes
infra
inter
intra
macro
micro
neo
pan
under, beneath, below

among, between
within, inside
large
small
new
all


Common Prefixes
para
per
peri
post
pre
pseudo
retro
beside, beyond, near

through
around
after
before, in front of
false
backward, behind


Common Prefixes
sub
super
supra
tachy
trans
ultra
below, under
above, excess
above
fast
through, across
beyond, excess


Number Prefixes
bi
hemi
mono
multi
nulli
two
half
one
many
none

poly
quad
semi
tri
uni
many
four
partial, half
three
one

Suffix
Attached
to the end of a term

Adds meaning such as:
condition
disease
procedure
algia = pain
itis = inflammation
ectomy = surgical removal


Suffix
All
medical terms must have a suffix
Only mandatory word part
When
written by itself, precede with a hyphen
logy
sclerosis
cyte


Common Suffixes
algia
cele
cise
cyte
dynia
ectasis
gen
genesis
pain
hernia, protrusion
cut
cell
pain
dilatation
that which produces
produces, generates


Common Suffixes
genic
ia
iasis
ism
itis
logist
logy
lysis
producing
state, condition
abnormal condition
state of
inflammation
one who studies
study of
destruction


Common Suffixes
malacia
megaly
oma
osis
pathy
plasia
plasm
ptosis
abnormal softening
enlargement, large
tumor, mass
abnormal condition
disease
development, growth
formation, development
drooping


Common Suffixes
rrhage
rrhea
rrhexis
sclerosis
stenosis
therapy
trophy
excessive, abnormal flow

discharge, flow
rupture
hardening
narrowing
treatment
nourishment, development


Adjective Suffixes
Suffix
may be used to convert a word root into

a complete word
Translation of these suffixes is pertaining to
New word can then be used to modify another
word


Adjective Suffix Example

To state
that a patient has an ulcer in his

stomach:
gastr/o = stomach
-ic = pertaining to
gastric = pertaining to the stomach
gastric ulcer = ulcer found in the stomach


Adjective Suffixes
ac
al
an
ar
ary
eal
iac
ic
ical
ile

ior
ory
ose
ous
tic

Surgical Suffixes
centesis
ectomy
ostomy
otomy
pexy
plasty
rrhaphy
puncture to withdraw fluid

surgical removal
surgically create an opening
cutting into
surgical fixation
surgical repair
suture


Procedural Suffixes
gram
graph
graphy
meter
metry
scope
scopy
record or picture
instrument for recording
process of recording
instrument for measuring
process of measuring
instrument for viewing
process of visually examining


Word Building
Putting
together several parts to form a variety

of terms to convey the necessary information
Begins with knowing the meaning of the
various word parts in order to select the
correct ones
Always remember the rules regarding the
location of each word part


Interpreting Medical Terms
Term to be translated
gastroenterology
Divide the term into its word parts
gastr / o / enter / o / logy


Interpreting Medical Terms
Define each word part
gastr = stomach
o = combining vowel, no meaning
enter = small intestine
o = combining vowel, no meaning
logy = study of
Combine the meanings of the word parts
study of the stomach and small intestine


Pronunciation
Will
differ according to place of birth and

education
When in doubt, ask for spelling
New terms in the book are introduced in
boldface type, with phonetic spelling in
parentheses
Stressed syllable will be in capital letters:
pericarditis (per ih car DYE tis)


Spelling
Only
one correct way to spell a term

Changing one letter can change the meaning
of a word
abduction (moving away) vs. adduction (moving
towards)
ileum (small intestine) vs. ilium (hip bone)


Same Sounds Spelled Differently

psy
cy
dys
dis
psychiatry
cytology
dyspepsia
dislocation


Singular and Plural Endings

Many
medical terms come from Greek or Latin
words
Rules for forming plurals for these languages
are different from English
Plural of atrium is atria, not atriums
Other
words will use English rules
Plural of ventricle is ventricles


General Rules for Plurals

Word Ends In
a
ax
ex or ix
is
ma
nx
on
us
um
y
Singular
Plural
vertebra
thorax
appendix
metastasis
sarcoma
phalanx
ganglion
nucleus
ovum
biopsy

vertebrae
thoraces
appendices
metastases
sarcomata
phalanges
ganglia
nuclei
ova
biopsies
Abbreviations
Commonly
used to save time

Can be confusing
If you are concerned about confusion, spell out
the term
Do not use your own personal abbreviations


Figure 1.2 Health information management workers maintain accurate,

orderly, and permanent patient records.
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The Medical Record

Documents
details of hospital stay
Patients day-to-day condition

When and what services were provided
Response to treatment
All
personnel with patient contact complete the

appropriate report
Medical records department ensures that all
documents are present, complete, signed, and
in order

Medical Transcriptionist Video
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Common Elements of the

Medical Record
History
and Physical
Written by admitting
physician
Details patients:
History
Exam
results
Initial diagnosis
Physicians plan of
treatment

Physicians
Orders
Ordered by the
doctor
Complete list of:
Care
Medications
Tests
Treatments

Patient Histories Video One
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Patient Histories Video Two
Click here to view a video on the wrong manner while taking patient histories.
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Common Elements of
the Medical Record Notes
Nurses
Notes
Records the patients care throughout the day

Includes vital signs, treatment specifics, patients
response to treatment, and patients condition
Physicians
Progress Notes
Daily record of patients condition

Results of physical exam, summary of test results,
updated assessment and diagnoses, further plans
for treatment


Common Elements of
the Medical Record Reports
Consultation
Reports
Given by a specialist when the physician asks for

patient evaluation
Ancillary
Reports
From various treatments and therapies

Such as rehabilitation, social services, respiratory
therapy, or dietetics


Common Elements of
Operative
Report
From surgeon detailing the operation

Includes pre- and post-operative diagnosis
Specific details of the procedure and how the
patient tolerated the procedure
Anesthesiologists
Report
Relates details of drugs given to patient

Response to anesthesia
Vital signs during surgery


Common Elements of
Diagnostic
Reports
Results of all diagnostic tests performed on the

patient
From lab to medical imaging
Pathologists
Report
Report given by pathologist who studies tissue

removed from patient


Common Elements of
the Medical Record
Informed
Consent
Document voluntarily signed by the patient or

responsible party
Clearly describes purpose, methods, procedures,
benefits, and risks of procedures
Discharge
Summary
Outline of patients entire hospital stay

Includes condition at admission, admitting
diagnosis, test results, treatments, and patients
response, final diagnosis, and follow-up plans


Healthcare Settings
Acute
Care or General Hospital
Provides services to diagnose and treat diseases

for a short period of time
Specialty
Care Hospital
Provides care for specific type of disease

Example: psychiatric hospital


Figure 1.3 A nurse and medical assistant review a patients chart and plan
his or her daily care.
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Healthcare Settings
Nursing
Home or Long-Term Care Facility
Provides long-term care for patients who need

extra time to recover before going home
For persons who cannot care for themselves
Ambulatory
Care, Surgical Center or

Outpatient Clinic
For patients who do not need overnight care
Simple surgeries, therapy, or diagnostic testing


Healthcare Settings
Physicians
Office
Individual or group of doctors providing diagnostic

and treatment services in an office setting
Health
Maintenance Organization
Group of primary care physicians, specialists, and

other healthcare professionals
Provides wide range of services in a pre-paid
system


Healthcare Settings
Home
Health Care
Agencies that provide nursing, therapy, personal

care, or housekeeping services in patients home
Rehabilitation
Provides physical and occupational therapy

Inpatient and outpatient
Hospice
Organized group of health workers that provide

supportive treatment to terminally ill patients and
their families


Confidentiality
Any
information or record relating to a patient

is privileged
Moral and legal responsibility to keep all
information private
Proper authorization must be signed by patient
before any information can be released
Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) sets
federal standards to protect records

HIPAA Video
Click here to view a video describing HIPAA.

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Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 2
Body Organization


Slide 23Cardiovascular System Animation
Slide 26Lymphatic System Animation
Slide 28Respiratory System Animation
Slide 30Digestive System Animation
Slide 32Urinary System Animation
Slide 34Female Reproductive System Animation
Slide 36Male Reproductive System Animation
Slide 38Endocrine System Animation
Slide 40Nervous System Animation
Slide 42Eye Anatomy Animation
Slide 44Ear Anatomy Animation
Slide 64Body Cavity Exercise
Slide 79Body Areas Exercise

Body Organization Combining Forms
abdomin/o
adip/o
anter/o
brachi/o
caud/o
cephal/o
cervic/o
chondr/o
crani/o
abdomen
fat
front
arm
tail
head
neck
cartilage
skull

crur/o
cyt/o
dist/o
dors/o
epitheli/o
glute/o
hist/o
infer/o
later/o
leg
cell
away from
back of body
epithelium
buttock
tissue
below
side

Body Organization Combining Forms
medi/o
muscul/o
neur/o
organ/o
oste/o
pelv/o
peritone/o
pleur/o
poster/o
proxim/o
middle
muscle
nerve
organ
bone
pelvis
peritoneum
pleura
back
near to

pub/o
somat/o
spin/o
super/o
system/o
thorac/o
ventr/o
vertebr/o
viscer/o
genital region
body
spine
above
system
chest
belly
vertebra
internal organ

Levels of Body Organization

Cells
form
tissues
Tissues form
organs
Organs form
systems
Systems form
whole body



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Cells
Cytology
study of cells and their function

Fundamental unit of life
Has all properties of being alive
Responds to stimuli
Engages in metabolic activity
Reproduces itself
All
tissues and organs in body formed of cells


Cells
Individual
cells perform functions for body
Reproduction
Hormone secretion
Energy production
Excretion
Special
cells carry out very specific functions
Muscle contraction
Electrical impulse transmission


Cells
Cells
come in different sizes and shapes

But all cells have
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane


Figure 2.1 Examples of four different types of cells from the body
illustrating the differences in shape.
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Tissues
Histology
the study of tissue

Formed when like cells are grouped together
to perform an activity
Four types of tissue
Muscle tissue
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue


Muscle Tissue
Produces
movement in body by contracting

Composed of individual muscle cells called
muscle fibers
Three basic types of muscles
Skeletal muscle attached to bones
Smooth muscle internal organs like intestine and
uterus
Cardiac muscle only in the heart


Figure 2.2 This figure shows the appearance of different types of

tissues and their location within the body.
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Epithelial Tissue
Known
as epithelium
Found as lining for internal organs and
covering for the skin
Close-packed cells that function to
Form a protective barrier skin
Absorb lining of intestine
Secrete sweat glands
Excrete wastes kidney tubules


Connective Tissue
Supports
and protects
Function depends on location
Many different forms
Adipose
Bone
Cartilage
Tendons


Nervous Tissue
Composed
of cells called neurons

Forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Allows for conduction of electrical impulses
between brain and rest of the body


Organs
Composed
of several types of tissue

Work together as a unit
Perform special functions
Example: stomach contains
Muscle fibers
Nerve tissues
Epithelial tissue


Systems
Composed
of several organs working together

in coordinated manner
Perform complex functions
Example: stomach plus other digestive organs
including mouth, esophagus, liver, pancreas,
small intestines, and colon work together to
break down, digest, and absorb food


Integumentary System
Two-way
barrier and
temperature
regulation
Organs
Skin
Hair
Nails
Sweat glands
Sebaceous glands


Musculoskeletal System
Skeleton
Supports
and protects
body, forms blood cells,
stores minerals
Organs
Bones
Joints


Muscles
Produce
movement
Organs
Muscles


Cardiovascular System
Pumps
blood to
transport nutrients,
oxygen, and wastes
Organs
Heart
Arteries
Veins


Cardiovascular System Animation
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Blood (Hematic System)

Transports
oxygen,
protects, and
controls bleeding
Organs
Plasma
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets


Lymphatic System
Protects
body
Organs
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic vessels
Spleen
Thymus gland
Tonsils


Lymphatic System Animation
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Respiratory System
Obtains
oxygen and
removes carbon
dioxide
Organs
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchial tubes
Lungs


Respiratory System Animation
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Gastrointestinal System
Ingest,
digest, and
absorb nutrients
Organs
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Colon
Liver & gallbladder
Pancreas


Digestive System Animation
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Urinary System
Filters
waste and
removes from body
Organs
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra


Urinary System Animation
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Female Reproductive System

Produces
eggs and
provides place for
baby
Organs
Ovaries
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Breast



Animation
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Male Reproductive System

Produces
sperm
Organs
Testes
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Penis
Seminal vesicles
Prostate glans
Bulbourethral glands



Animation
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Endocrine System
Regulates
activity
Organs
metabolic
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus gland
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Ovaries & testes


Endocrine System Animation
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Nervous System
Receives
sensory
information and
coordinates
response
Organs
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves


Nervous System Animation
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Special Senses Eye

Vision
Organs
Eyes


Eye Anatomy Animation
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Special Senses Ear

Hearing
and balance
Organs
Ears


Ear Anatomy Animation
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Medical Specialties by System

Integumentary
Musculoskeletal
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Blood
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Dermatology
Orthopedics,
Orthopedic Surgery
Endocrinology
Cardiology
Hematology
Immunology
Otorhinolaryngology,
Pulmonology, Thoracic Surgery


Medical Specialties by System

Digestive
Female
Gastroenterology, Proctology
Urology
Gynecology, Obstetrics
Reproductive
Male Reproductive
Nervous
Eye
Ear
Urology
Neurology, Neurosurgery
Ophthalmology
Otorhinolaryngology
Urinary


Anatomical Position
Used
when describing positions & relationships

of structures in body
Assume person is in anatomical position even if
body or parts of the body are in other positions


Anatomical Position
Standing
erect
Arms at side of body
Palms facing forward
Eyes straight forward
Legs are parallel
Feet and toes pointing
forward


Figure 2.3 The anatomical position: standing erect, arms down at

sides, palms facing forward, fingers extended, eyes looking
straight ahead, legs together, and toes pointing forward.
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Body Planes
Used
to assist in describing the body and its
parts
Three planes:
Sagittal plane
Frontal plane
Transverse plane


Sagittal Plane
Also
called median plane

Vertical plane
Runs lengthwise from front to back
Divides body into left and right portions
Cut along sagittal plane yields a sagittal
section


Frontal Plane
Also
called coronal plane

Vertical plane
Runs lengthwise from side to side
Divides body into front and back positions
Cut along frontal plane yields a frontal
section or coronal section


Transverse Plane
Also
called horizontal plane

Crosswise plane that runs parallel to the
ground
Divides body into upper and lower portions
Cut along transverse plane yields a
transverse section


Figure 2.4 The planes of the body: sagittal plane, frontal plane,
and transverse plane.
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Additional Sections
Cross-section
Produced by slice perpendicular to long axis of

structure
Longitudinal
section
Produced by lengthwise slice along long axis of

structure


Body Regions
Cephalic
head
Cervical neck
Brachial arm
Crural leg


Regions of the Trunk (torso)

Anterior
trunk
Thoracic chest
Abdominal
Pelvic
Pubic genitals
Posterior
trunk
Dorsum back
Vertebral
Gluteal buttocks


Figure 2.5 Anterior and posterior regions of the body.

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Body Cavities
Body
is not solid structure; has many open

spaces or cavities
Two dorsal cavities
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
Two
ventral cavities
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity


Dorsal Cavities
Cranial
cavity
Contains
Spinal
brain
cavity
Contains
spinal
cord


Thoracic Cavity
Contains
Two lungs
Central mediastinum
Mediastinum
contains
Heart
Aorta
Esophagus
Trachea
Thymus
gland


Abdominopelvic Cavity
Separated
from
thoracic cavity by
diaphragm
Superior abdominal
cavity and inferior
pelvic cavity
Contain digestive,
excretory, and
reproductive organs

Figure 2.6 The dorsal (red) and ventral (blue) body cavities.
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Body Cavity Exercise
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Viscera Encased in Sac

Double
layered membranous sac
Parietal layer outer layer that lines cavities

Visceral layer inner layer that contacts viscera
Called
pleura in thoracic cavity

Called peritoneum in abdominopelvic cavity


Subdivisions of Pleura
Pleural
cavity
Contains the lungs
Pericardial
cavity
Contains the heart


Anatomical Divisions of the

Abdomen
Upper
row:
Right and left hypochondriac regions

Center epigastric region
Middle
row:
Right and left lumbar regions

Center umbilical region
Lower
row:
Right and left inguinal regions

Center hypogastric region


Table 2.3, Figure A The anatomical divisions of the abdomen.

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Clinical Divisions of Abdomen

Right
upper
quadrant (RUQ)
Majority
of liver
Gallbladder
Small portion of
pancreas
Small intestine
Colon

Right
lower
quadrant (RLQ)
Small
intestine
Colon
Right
ovary
Right fallopian tube
Appendix
Right ureter

Clinical Divisions of Abdomen

Left
upper quadrant
(LUQ)
Small
portion of liver
Spleen
Stomach
Majority of pancreas
Small intestine
Colon

Left
lower quadrant
(LLQ)
Small
intestine
Colon
Left
ovary
Left fallopian tube
Left ureter

Table 2.3, Figure B The clinical divisions of the abdomen.

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Directional Terms
Assist
medical personnel in position or location

of patients complaint
Help to describe one process, organ, or
system as it relates to another
They are listed in pairs that have opposite
meanings in following table


Directional Terms
Superior
More towards head
Inferior
or caudal
More towards feet
Anterior
or cephalic
or ventral
More towards front or

belly-side of body
Posterior
or dorsal
More towards back or

spinal cord side of body


Directional Terms
Medial
More towards middle
Lateral
More towards side
Proximal
Nearer to the point of

attachment to body
Distal
Farther away from

point of attachment to
body


Figure 2.7 Anterior and lateral views of the body illustrating directional
terms.
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Directional Terms
Apex
Tip or summit of organ
Base
Bottom or lower part of an organ
Superficial
More towards surface of body
Deep
Further away from surface of body


Supine
Supine lying horizontally facing upward
Figure 2.8A The supine position.


Prone
Prone lying horizontally facing downward
Figure 2.8B The prone position.


Body Areas Exercise
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Body Structure Word Building

abdomin/o + al abdominal
pertaining to abdomen
anter/o + ior
anterior
pertaining to front
brachi/o + al
brachial
pertaining to arm
caud/o + al
caudal
pertaining to tail
cephal/o + ic
cephalic
pertaining to head
cervic/o + al
cervical
pertaining to neck
crani/o + al
cranial
pertaining to skull
crur/o + al
crural
pertaining to leg



dist/o + al
distal
pertaining to away
dors/o + al
dorsal
pertaining to back of body
epitheli/o + al
epithelial
pertaining to epithelium
glute/o + al
gluteal
pertaining to buttocks
infer/o + ior
inferior
pertaining to below
later/o + al
lateral
pertaining to side
medi/o + al
medial
pertaining to middle
muscul/o + ar
muscular pertaining to muscles



neur/o + al
neural
pertaining to nerves
organ/o + ic
organic
pertaining to organs
pelv/o + ic
pelvic
pertaining to pelvis
peritone/o + al
peritoneal
pertaining to peritoneum
pleur/o + al
pleural
pertaining to pleura
poster/o + ior
posterior
pertaining to back
proxim/o + al
proximal
pertaining to near
pub/o + ic
pubic
pertaining to genitals



somat/o + ic
somatic
pertaining to body
spin/o + al
spinal
pertaining to spine
super/o + ior
superior
pertaining to above
system/o + ic
systemic pertaining to systems
thorac/o + ic
thoracic
pertaining to chest
ventr/o + al
ventral
pertaining to belly
vertebr/o + al
vertebral pertaining to vertebrae
viscer/o + al
visceral

pertaining to internal organs

Body Organization Abbreviations

AP
anteroposterior
CV
cardiovascular
ENT
ear, nose, and throat
GI
gastrointestinal
GYN
gynecology
lat
lateral
LE
lower extremity (leg)


Body Organization Abbreviations

LLQ
left lower quadrant
LUQ
left upper quadrant
MS
musculoskeletal
OB
obstetrics
PA
posteroanterior
RLQ
right lower quadrant
RUQ
right upper quadrant
UE
upper extremity (arm)




Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 3
Integumentary System

Slide 38Skin Anatomy Exercise
Slide 77Decubitus Ulcers Video
Slide 78
Eczema Video
Slide 83Skin Cancer Video


Integumentary System at a Glance

Functions
of Integumentary System
Two-way protective barrier

Temperature regulation
Houses sensory receptors
Secretes important fluids


Integumentary System at a Glance

Organs
of Integumentary System
Skin
Hair
Nails
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands



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Integumentary Combining Forms

albin/o
white
bi/o
life
cry/o
cold
cutane/o skin
cyan/o
blue
derm/o
skin
dermat/o skin

diaphor/o
profuse
sweating
electr/o
erythr/o
hidr/o
ichthy/o
kerat/o
horny
electricity
red
sweat
scaly, dry
hard,

Integumentary Combining Forms

leuk/o
white
lip/o
fat
melan/o black
myc/o
fungus
necr/o
death
onych/o nail
pil/o
hair
phot/o
light
py/o
rhytid/o
scler/o
seb/o
trich/o
ungu/o
vesic/o
xer/o
pus
wrinkle
hard
oil
hair
nail
bladder
dry

Integumentary System Suffixes

derma
opsy
tome
skin
view
instrument to use to cut


Integumentary System Prefixes

allo
xeno
other, different from usual

strange, foreign


Anatomy and Physiology

Skin
Accessory
organs
Sweat glands
Sebaceous glands
Hair
Nails


Figure 3.1 Skin structure, including the three layers of the skin and
the accessory organs: sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair.
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Largest
organ in body
Weighs more than 20 pounds (in adult)
Skin also called:
Integument
Cutaneous membrane


Functions
Protection
House
nerve receptors
Secrete fluids
Regulate temperature


Protection
Primary
function
Forms 2-way barrier
Keeps out pathogens and harmful substances
Prevents critical body fluids from escaping
Protects
underlying tissues


Sensory Receptors
Located
within middle layer of skin
Detect:
Temperature
Pain
Touch
Pressure
Nerve
endings convey messages to brain and

spinal cord


Fluids Produced
Sweat
glands:
Assist body in maintaining internal temperature

Create cooling effect when sweat evaporates
Sebaceous
glands:
Oil glands
Produce sebum
Lubricates the skin surface


Temperature Regulation
To cool
skin:
Sweat evaporation
Dilate superficial
blood vessels to
release heat

To conserve
heat
Constrict superficial
blood vessels to
keep warm blood
away from surface
Continuous fat layer
acts as insulation

The Skin
Three
layers
Epidermis thin,
outer membrane
layer
Dermis middle,
fibrous connective
tissue layer
Subcutaneous layer
innermost layer of
fatty tissue


the accessory organs: sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair.
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Epidermis
Composed
of stratified squamous
epithelium
Flat scale-like cells
Arranged in overlapping layers called strata
Has
no blood supply or connective tissue
Depends on deeper layers of skin for nourishment
Basal
layer the deepest layer


Basal Layer of Epidermis

Cells
continuously
grow and push old
cells toward surface
During this process
Cells shrink, die, and

fill with hard protein
called keratin
Keratinized
cells
allow skin to act as
barrier to infection

Melanocytes
Special cells of basal

layer
Produce black
pigment melanin
Gives skin color
Protects against
ultraviolet rays of sun

Figure 3.2 Photomicrograph of the epidermis layer of the skin.

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Dermis
Also
called corium
Located between epidermis and subcutaneous
layer
Name means true skin
Is living tissue with very good blood supply


Dermis
Composed
of:
Connective tissue and collagen fibers

Strong fibrous proteins give dermis flexible strength
Houses:
Hair follicles
Sweat glands
Sebaceous glands
Blood vessels

Lymph vessels
Sensory receptors
Nerve fibers
Muscle fibers

Subcutaneous Layer
Also
called hypodermis
Third and deepest layer
Composed of fat cells called lipocytes
Protects the deeper tissues of body
Acts as insulation for heat and cold


Accessory Organs
Located
within dermis
Include:
Hair
Nails
Sweat glands
Sebaceous glands


Hair
Hair
follicle
Hair root
Hair shaft
Arrector pili muscle


Hair
Grows
longer from the root
Deep cells of hair root force older cells to move

upward
This forms hair shaft
Grows towards surface within hair follicle
Melanin
gives hair its color

Arrector pili
Slip of smooth muscle
Causes hairs to stand up


Figure 3.3 Structure of a hair and its associated sebaceous gland.

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Nails
Nail
Flat plate of keratin
Nail
body
bed
Connects nail body to

underlying tissue
Lunula
Half-moon white area

at base of nail


Nails
Grow
longer from
nail root
Cuticle
Soft tissue that

covers nail root
Free
edge
Exposed edge


Figure 3.4 External and internal structures of nails.

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Sebaceous Glands
Open
into hair
follicles
Secrete the oil
sebum
Lubricates
hair and
skin
Prevents drying and
cracking


Figure 3.3 Structure of a hair and its associated sebaceous gland.

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Sweat Glands
Also
called
sudoriferous glands
Coiled gland in
dermis
Sweat travels to
surface in sweat duct
Sweat pore surface
opening


the accessory organs: sweat gland, sebaceous glands, and hair.
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Sweat Glands
2
million throughout body

Sweat or perspiration
Cools body as evaporates
Contains small amount of waste product
Normal colorless and odorless
Apocrine
glands
Found in pubic and underarm areas

Thicker sweat that can produce an odor


Skin Anatomy Exercise
Click here to view an interactive exercise on skin anatomy.

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Word Building with

cutane/o & derm/o
sub ous subcutaneous
pertaining to under skin
epi al
pertaining to upon skin
epidermal
hypo ic hypodermic
pertaining to under skin
intra al
pertaining to within skin
intradermal


Word Building with dermat/o

itis
dermatitis
inflammation of skin
logist
dermatologist
skin specialist
osis
dermatosis
abnormal skin condition
pathy
dermatopathy
skin disease
plasty
dermatoplasty
surgical repair of skin


Word Building with hidr/o and lip/o

an osis
anhidrosis
abnormal condition of no
sweat
hyper osis hyperhidrosis
abnormal condition of
excessive sweat
ectomy
lipectomy
surgical removal of fat
oma
lipoma
fat tumor/growth


Word Building with

melan/o & necr/o
oma
melanoma
black tumor
cyte
melanocyte
black cell
osis
necrosis
death


Word Building with

onych/o and py/o
ectomy
onychectomy
surgical removal of nail
malacia
onychomalacia
nail softening
abnormal condition of nail

myc/o osis onychomycosis
fungus
phagia
onychophagia
nail eating (nail biting)
genic
pyogenic
pus producing


Word Building with

rhytid/o and seb/o
ectomy
rhytidectomy
surgical removal of
wrinkles
plasty
rhytidoplasty
surgical repair of wrinkles
rrhea
seborrhea
oil discharge


Word Building with

trich/o and ungu/o
myc/o -osis trichomycosis
hair fungus
al
pertaining to nail
ungual


Word Building with derma

erythr/o
erythroderma
red skin
ichthy/o
ichthyoderma
Scaly, dry skin
leuk/o
leukoderma
white skin
py/o
pyoderma
pus skin
scler/o
scleroderma
hard skin
xer/o
xeroderma
dry skin


Integumentary Vocabulary
abrasion
friction scraping away skin surface
cicatrix
normal scar
comedo
hardened sebum in hair follicle;

blackhead
contusion
injury caused by a blow; causes

swelling, pain, and bruising
cyanosis
bluish tint to skin caused by

deoxygenated blood
depigmentation loss of normal skin color


Figure 3.5 A cyanotic infant. Note the bluish tinge to the skin around the lips,
chin, and nose. (St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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dermatology
(Derm, derm)
diagnosis and treatment of skin

conditions; physician is a dermatologist
diaphoresis
profuse sweating
ecchymosis
blood collecting under skin following

blunt trauma; a bruise
erythema
red flushing of skin
eschar
thick layer of dead tissue develops over

a deep burn area
hirsutism
excessive hair growth


Figure 3.6A Male lying supine with large ecchymosis on lateral rib
cage and shoulder.
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hyperemia
redness of skin due to increased

blood flow
hyperpigmentation abnormal amount of pigmentation

keloid
thick hypertrophic scar
keratosis
condition of excessive growth and

thickening of epidermis layer
lesion
general term for injury or abnormality
nevus
pigmented skin blemish, birthmark,

or mole; usually benign


Figure 3.7 Keloids, hypertrophic scarring on the back.

(Martin Rotker/ Phototake NYC)
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pallor
abnormal paleness of skin
petechiae
spots from minute hemorrhages under

skin
photosensitivity skin reacts abnormally to light

plastic surgery
repair, reconstruction, or improvement

of body structures
pruritus
severe itching
purpura
skin hemorrhage due to fragile blood

vessels


Figure 3.6B Petechiae, pinpoint skin hemorrhages.

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Figure 3.6C Purpura, hemorrhaging into the skin due to fragile

blood vessels.
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purulent
infection producing pus; dead bacteria,

white blood cells, and tissue debris
strawberry
hemangioma
congenital collection of dilated blood

vessels; birthmark
suppurative
containing or producing pus
urticaria
hives; eruption of wheals with severe

itching
verruca
warts; benign growth caused by virus


Figure 3.8 Strawberry hemangioma, a birthmark caused by a collection of blood

vessels in the skin. (H.C. Robinson/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers,
Inc.)
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Pathology Surface Lesions

cyst
fluid-filled sac under skin
fissure
cracklike lesion on skin
laceration
torn or jagged wound
macule
flat, discolored spot on skin
nodule
firm, solid mass larger than 0.5 cm


Figure 3.9 A) Cutaway view and B) photograph of a cyst. (Bart's Medical Library/Phototake
NYC)
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D
Figure 3.9 C) Cutaway view and D) photograph of a fissure. (Phototake NYC)

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F
Figure 3.9 E) Cutaway view and F) photograph of a macule. (Phototake NYC)

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H
Figure 3.9 G) Cutaway view and H) photograph of a nodule. (Phototake NYC)

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Pathology Surface Lesions

papule
small, solid raised spot smaller than 0.5 cm
pustule
raised spot on skin containing pus
ulcer
open sore in skin
vesicle
small, fluid-filled, raised spot; blister
wheal
small, round, swollen area; typical of

allergic skin reaction


J
Figure 3.9 I) Cutaway view and J) photograph of a papule. (ISM/Phototake NYC)

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L
Figure 3.9 K) Cutaway view and L) photograph of a pustule. (P.Marazzi/Science Photo
Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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N
Figure 3.9 M) Cutaway view and N) photograph of an ulcer.
(Dr. P.Marazzi/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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P
Figure 3.9 O) Cutaway view and P) photograph of a vesicle. (ISM/Phototake NYC)

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R
Figure 3.9 Q) Cutaway view and R) photograph of a wheal.
(Charles Stewart MD FACEP, FAAEM)
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Pathology of the Skin

abscess
collection of pus in skin
acne
inflammation of sebaceous glands and

hair follicles with papules and pustules
acne rosacea
chronic form of adult acne with redness

and tiny pimples, primarily on nose
acne vulgaris
common form of teenage acne with

comedo, papules, and pustules
albinism
genetic condition; unable to make

melanin; white hair and skin, and red
eyes



basal cell
carcinoma
cancerous tumor in basal cell layer;

common cancer; rarely metastasizes
burn
skin damage caused by fire, electricity,

ultraviolet light, or caustic chemicals;
percentage of skin burned is estimated
by Rule of Nines


Figure 3.10 Basal cell carcinoma. A frequent type of skin cancer

that rarely metastasizes. (ISM/Phototake NYC)
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Figure 3.12 Rule of Nines. A method for determining percentage of

body burned. Each differently colored section represents 9% of
the body surface.
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First Degree Burn
First degree
burn
skin reddened and painful; no blisters;

damage to epidermis


Second Degree Burn
Second
degree burn
skin reddened and painful with blisters;

damage to epidermis and dermis


Third Degree Burn
Third degree
burn
skin charred; epidermis and dermis

burned away; subcutaneous layer
exposed



cellulitis
diffuse acute infection of connective

tissue of skin
decubitus
ulcer (decub)
open sore caused by pressure over bony

prominences; caused by loss of blood
flow to skin
dry gangrene
late stages of gangrene; affected area

becomes dried, blackened, and shriveled
eczema
superficial dermatitis; redness, vesicles,

itching, and crusting


Decubitus Ulcer Video
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Eczema Video
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gangrene
tissue necrosis due to loss of blood

flow
ichthyosis
skin becomes dry, scaly, & keratinized
impetigo
highly infections bacterial infection with

pustules that rupture and crust over
Kaposis
sarcoma
skin cancer seen in AIDS patients;

brownish-purple lesions


Figure 3.13 Impetigo, a highly contagious bacterial infection. Note the extensive crusting
around the eye.
(Bart's Medical Library/Phototake NYC)
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malignant
melanoma
(MM)
dangerous form of cancer; begins in

melanocytes; quickly metastasizes
pediculosis
lice infestation
psoriasis
chronic inflammatory condition with

papules forming silvery scale patches
rubella
contagious viral infection; German

measles
scabies
mite infestation


Figure 3.14 Malignant melanoma. This tumor demonstrates the

highly characteristic color of this tumor. (ISM/Phototake NYC)
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Skin Cancer Video
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Figure 3.15 Psoriasis. This photograph demonstrates the

characteristic white skin patches of this condition.
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sebaceous
cyst
sebum filled sac forms around

sebaceous gland
squamous cell
cancer of epidermis layer; may invade
carcinoma
deeper tissue and metastasize
(SCC)
systemic lupus chronic disease of connective tissue;
erythematosus injures skin, joints, & kidneys; produces
(SLE)
red, scaly butterfly rash across face
tinea
fungal infection; itching & scaling lesions



tinea capitis
fungal infection on scalp; ringworm
tinea pedis
fungal infection of foot; athletes foot
varicella
contagious viral infection; chickenpox
vitiligo
disappearance of pigment from skin in

patches; causes milk-white lesions
wet gangrene
area of gangrene with secondary

bacterial infection and pus


Figure 3.16 Varicella or chickenpox, a viral skin infection. In this

photograph, the rash is beginning to form scabs.
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Pathology of the Hair

alopecia
absence or loss of hair; baldness
carbuncle
furuncle involving several hair follicles
furuncle
bacterial infection of hair follicle;

redness, pain, and swelling; a boil


Pathology of the Nails

onychia
infected nail bed
paronychia
infection of skin fold around nail


Clinical Laboratory Tests

culture &
sensitivity
(C&S)
grows bacteria removed from infected

area to identify infecting bacteria; then
determines sensitivity to various antibiotics


Biopsy Procedures
biopsy
(BX, bx)
removal of piece of tissue to examine

under a microscope; aids in diagnosis
exfoliative
cytology
scraping cells from tissue to examine

under microscope
frozen
section
(FS)
thin piece of tissue is cut from frozen

specimen for rapid examination under
microscope
fungal
scrapings
scrapings from lesion is cultured and then

examined under microscope


Skin Grafting
skin graft (SG)
transfer of skin from normal area to

cover another site
allograft
skin graft from one person to

another
autograft
skin graft from a persons own body
heterograft
skin graft from an animal of another

species; usually a pig; xenograft
xenograft
skin graft from an animal of another

species; usually a pig; heterograft


Figure 3.17 A freshly applied autograft. Note that the donor skin has been
perforated so that it can be stretched to cover a larger exposed area.
(Courtesy of Dr. William Dominic, Community Regional Medical Center)

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Skin Grafting
dermatome
instrument for cutting skin or for

producing thin transplants of skin
dermatoplasty
skin grafting


Surgical Procedures
cauterization
destruction of tissue by using

chemicals, electricity, heat, or
freezing
cryosurgery
use of extreme cold to freeze and

destroy tissue
curettage
removal of superficial skin lesion

with a scraper (curette)
debridement
removal of foreign material & dead

or damaged tissue from wound


Surgical Procedures
electrocautery
using an electric current to destroy

tissue
incision & drainage making an incision to drain material

(I&D)
such as pus


Plastic Surgery
chemabrasion
abrasions using chemicals; chemical

peel
dermabrasion
abrasion using wire brushes or

sandpaper; removes scars, tattoos
laser therapy
removal of lesions using a laser

beam
liposuction
removal of fat beneath skin by

means of suction
rhytidectomy
surgical removal of excess skin to

eliminate wrinkles; face lift


Integumentary Pharmacology
anesthetics
deaden pain
Xylocaine,
Novocain
antibiotics
kill bacteria
Neosporin
antifungals
kill fungi
Monistat, Lotrimin
antiparasitics
kill mites or lice
Kwell, Nix


Integumentary Pharmacology
antipruritics
reduce severe
itching
Benadryl, Caladryl
antiseptics
kill bacteria
isopropyl alcohol,
hydrogen peroxide
anti-virals
treat herpes simplex

Valtrex, Zovirax
infection
corticosteroid
cream
powerful antiinflammatory

Cortaid; Kenalog

Integumentary Abbreviations
BCC
basal cell carcinoma
BX, bx
biopsy
C&S
culture and sensitivity
decub
decubitus ulcer
Derm, derm
dermatology
FS
frozen section


HSV
herpes simplex virus
I&D
incision and drainage
ID
intradermal
MM
malignant melanoma
SCC
squamous cell carcinoma
SG
skin graft


SLE
systemic lupus erythematosus
STSG
split thickness skin graft
subcu, SC, sc,

subcutaneous
subq
UV
ultraviolet


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 4


Slide 30Bone Structure Exercise
Slide 61Skeletal Bones Exercise
Slide 78Chiropractic Medicine Video
Slide 91Osteoporosis Video
Slide 98Arthritis Video
Slide 103Arthroscopy Video
Slide 124Muscles Animation
Slide 138Joint Movement Animation
Slide 141Humerus Adduction/Abduction Animation
Slide 143Elbow Flexion/Extension Animation
Slide 145Ankle Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion Animation
Slide 148Ankle Inversion and Eversion Animation
Slide 150Elbow Pronation and Supination Animation

Multimedia Directory Continued

Slide 152Humerus Circumduction Animation
Slide 153Hand Opposition Animation
Slide 154Humerus Rotation Animation
Slide 162Muscle Atrophy Video
Slide 165Muscular Dystrophy Video
Slide 167Carpal Tunnel Video


Skeletal System at a Glance

Functions
of Skeletal System
Internal framework of body

Supports body
Protects internal organs
Point of attachment for muscles
Produces blood cells
Stores minerals


Skeletal System at a Glance

Organs
of Skeletal System
Bones of the skeleton

Joints



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Skeletal System Combining Forms

ankyl/o
arthr/o
articul/o
burs/o
carp/o
cervic/o
stiff joint
joint
joint
sac
wrist
neck



chondr/o
clavicul/o
coccyg/o
cortic/o
cost/o
crani/o
cartilage
clavicle
coccyx
outer portion
rib
skull



femor/o
fibul/o
humer/o
ili/o
ischi/o
kyph/o
femur
fibula
humerus
ilium
ischium
hump



lamin/o
lord/o
lumb/o
mandibul/o
maxill/o
medull/o
lamina, part of vertebra

bent backwards
loin
mandible
maxilla
inner portion



metacarp/o
metatars/o
myel/o
orth/o
oste/o
patell/o
metacarpals
metatarsals
bone marrow
straight
bone
patella



ped/o
pelv/o
phalang/o
pod/o
pub/o
radi/o
foot
pelvis
phalanges
foot
pubis
radius



sacr/o
scapul/o
scoli/o
spondyl/o
stern/o
synovi/o
sacrum
scapula
crooked, bent
vertebrae
sternum
synovial membrane



synov/o
tars/o
thorac/o
tibi/o
uln/o
vertebr/o
synovial membrane
ankle
chest
tibia
ulna
vertebra


Skeletal System Suffixes

blast
clasia
desis
listhesis
porosis
immature, embryonic
to break surgically
stabilize, fuse
slipping
porous



Bones
are body organs with blood supply,

nerves, and lymphatic vessels
Bones are connected to each other to form
skeleton
Framework for the body
206 bones



Red
bone marrow within bones produces

blood cells
Bones also:
Protect vital organs
Store minerals



Joint
Place where two bones meet

Held together by ligaments
Gives flexibility to skeleton


Bones
Also
called osseous tissue

One of hardest materials in body
Formed from gradual process before birth
called ossification
Fetal skeleton is formed from a cartilage
model


Bones
Flexible
tissue is gradually replaced by

osteoblasts (immature bone cells)
In adult bones osteoblasts mature into
osteocytes
Formation of strong bones dependant on
adequate supply of minerals


Four Shapes of Bones

Long
bones
Short
bones
Flat
bones
Irregular
bones
Longer than
wide
Roughly as Platelong as wide shaped
Shape very
irregular
Example:
femur
humerus
Example:
carpals
tarsals
Example:
vertebrae

Example:
sternum
scapula
pelvis

Figure 4.1 Classification of bones by shape.

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Long Bones
Majority
of bones in
body
Divided into:
Diaphysis
Epiphysis


Diaphysis
Central
shaft
Medullary cavity
Open canal within
diaphysis
Contains yellow
bone marrow
Mostly fat


Epiphysis
Wide
ends of long
bone
Distal epiphysis
Proximal epiphysis
Articular
cartilage
Covers
epiphysis
Prevents bone
rubbing on bone


Periosteum
Covers
surface of
bone not covered by
articular cartilage
Thin connective
tissue membrane
Contains numerous
nerve and lymphatic
vessels


Compact Bone
Also
called
cortical bone
Very dense and
hard
Outer layer of bone
Found in both
epiphysis and
diaphysis


Cancellous Bone
Also
called spongy
bone
Found inside bone
Has spaces
containing red bone
marrow
Manufactures blood
cells


Figure 4.2 Components of a long bone.

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Bone Structure Exercise
Click here to review long bone structure with a labeling activity.

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Bony Processes
Projection
from the surface of a bone

Rough processes provide place for muscle
attachment
Smooth rounded processes articulate with
another bone in a joint
Named for shape and location


Common Bony Processes

Head
Large smooth ball-shaped end of a long

bone
Condyle
Smooth rounded portion at end of bone
Epicondyle Projection above or on a condyle

Trochanter Large rough process
Tubercle
Small rough process
Tuberosity
Large rough process


Figure 4.3 Bony processes found on the femur.

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Bony Depressions
Sinus
Hollow cavity within bone
Foramen
Smooth opening for nerves and blood vessels
Fossa
Shallow cavity or depression within a bone
Fissure
Deep groove or slit-like opening


The Skeleton
Skeleton
has two divisions
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton


Axial Skeleton
Includes
bones in:
Head
Neck
Spine
Chest
Trunk


Figure 4.4 Bones of the axial skeleton.

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The Skull
Is
divided into two parts

Cranium
Facial bones
Protects
brain, eyes, ears, nasal cavity, and

oral cavity
Attachment for muscles of chewing and
turning the head


Cranium
Frontal
Forehead
Parietal
1
2
Upper sides and roof

of skull
Temporal
Sides & base of skull


Cranium
Ethmoid
Part of eye orbit,

nose, & floor of skull
Sphenoid
Part of floor of skull
Occipital
Back & base of skull


Figure 4.5 Bones of the skull.

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Facial Bones
Mandible
Lower jawbone
Maxilla
Upper jawbone
Zygomatic
Cheek bones
Vomer
Part of nasal septum


Facial Bones
Palatine
Hard palate and floor

of nose
Nasal
Part of nasal septum

and bridge of nose
Lacrimal
Inner corner of eye


Figure 4.5 Bones of the skull.

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Hyoid Bone
Single
U-shaped bone
In neck between mandible and larynx
Attachment point for swallowing and speech
muscles


The Trunk
Vertebral
column
Sternum
Rib
cage


The Vertebral Column

Divided
into five
sections
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacrum
Coccyx


The Vertebral Column

Cervical
7 vertebrae of neck
Thoracic
12 vertebrae of chest
Lumbar
5 vertebrae of low
back

Sacrum
5 fused vertebrae at
base of spine
Coccyx
35 small vertebrae
attached to sacrum

Figure 4.6 Divisions of the vertebral column.

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The Rib Cage

12
pairs of ribs
Attached to vertebral
column at back
Provides support for
organs, such as
heart and lungs


The Rib Cage

True
ribs
10 pairs attached to
sternum in front
Floating
ribs
Inferior 2 pairs
No attachment in
front


Figure 4.7 The structure of the rib cage.

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Appendicular Skeleton
Includes
bones of:
Pectoral girdle
Upper extremity
Pelvic girdle
Lower extremity


Figure 4.8 Bones of the appendicular skeleton.

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Pectoral Girdle
Attaches
upper extremity to axial skeleton

Articulates with:
Sternum anteriorly
Vertebral column posteriorly
Consists
of:
Clavicle collar bone

Scapula shoulder blade


Upper Extremity
Arm
Consists
of:
Humerus upper arm

Ulna part of forearm
Radius part of forearm
Carpals wrist bones
Metacarpals hand bones
Phalanges finger bones


Figure 4.9 Anatomical and common names for the pectoral girdle
and upper extremity.
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Pelvic Girdle
Also
called os coxae, innominate bone, or

hipbone
Attaches lower extremity to axial skeleton
Articulates with sacrum posteriorly
Consists of:
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis


Lower Extremity
Leg
Consists
of:
Femur thigh bone

Patella knee cap
Tibia shin bone
Fibula lower leg bone
Tarsals ankle bones
Metatarsals foot bones
Phalanges toe bones


Figure 4.10 Anatomical and common names for the pelvic girdle
and lower extremity.
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Skeletal Bones Exercise
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Joints
Formed
where two bones meet

Also called an articulation
Three types based on movement allowed
between the 2 bones:
Synovial
Cartilaginous
Fibrous


Synovial Joints
Freely
moving joints
Most common type of joint
Example is ball-and-socket joint
Bones held together by ligaments
Strong bands of connective tissue
Some
contain a bursa
Sac-like structure lined with synovial membrane


Synovial Joints
Enclosed
in an
elastic joint capsule
Contains synovial
fluid
Lubricant secreted by
synovial membrane
Ends
of bones are
covered with
articular cartilage


Figure 4.12 Structure of a synovial joint.

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Cartilaginous Joints
Allow
slight
movement
Hold bones firmly in
place by solid piece
of cartilage
Example
Pubic symphysis


Fibrous Joints
Allow
almost no
movement
Joined by thick
fibrous tissue
Example
Sutures of the skull


Figure 4.11 Examples of three types of joints found in the body.

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Word Building with arthr/o

algia
arthralgia
joint pain
centesis arthrocentesis
puncture to withdraw fluid

from joint
clasia
arthroclasia
surgically break a joint
desis
arthrodesis
fusion of a joint
gram
arthrogram
record of a joint
itis
arthritis
joint inflammation
otomy
arthrotomy
incision into a joint
scope
arthroscope
instrument to view joint


Word Building with burs/o & chondr/o

ectomy
bursectomy
surgical removal of bursa
itis
bursitis
inflammation of bursa
ectomy
chondrectomy
surgical removal of cartilage
malacia chondromalacia softening of cartilage

oma
chondroma
cartilage tumor
plasty
chondroplasty
surgical repair of cartilage


Word Building with cortic/o and crani/o

al
cortical
pertaining to the outer portion
intra al
intracranial
pertaining to inside the skull
otomy
craniotomy
incision into the skull


Word Building with medull/o & myel/o

ary
medullary
pertaining to the inner portion
oma
myeloma
red bone marrow tumor


Word Building with oste/o

algia
ostealgia
bone pain
chondr/o
oma
osteochondroma bone and cartilage tumor
clasia
osteoclasia
surgically break a bone
myel/o itis osteomyelitis
bone and bone marrow

inflammation
otomy
osteotomy
incision into bone
pathy
osteopathy
bone disease
tome
osteotome
instrument to cut bone


Word Building with synov/o & vertebr/o

itis
synovitis
inflammation of synovial
membrane
ectomy
synovectomy
surgical removal of
synovial membrane
inter al
intervertebral
pertaining to between
vertebrae


Adjective Forms of Bone Names

iliac
ilium
ischial
carpal
carpus
metacarpal metacarpus
cervical
neck
metatarsal metatarsus
costal
rib
radial
radius
cranial
cranium
sacral
sacrum
femoral
femur
sternal
sternum
humeral
humerus
tarsal
tarsus

ischium

Adjective Forms of Bone Names

tibial
tibia
ulnar
ulna
clavicular
clavicle
maxillary
maxilla
fibular
fibula
coccygeal
coccyx
lumbar
low back
phalangeal phalanges
mandibular mandible
pelvic
pelvis
patellar
patella
pubic
pubis
scapular
scapula
thoracic
thorax


Skeletal System Vocabulary

callus
mass of bone tissue that forms at fracture

site during healing
cast
solid material to immobilize a fracture; may

be made of plaster of Paris or fiberglass
chiropractic
practice of treating patients using

manipulations of vertebral column;
practitioner is a chiropractor
crepitation
noise produced by bones or cartilage

rubbing together
exostosis
bone spur


Chiropractic Medicine Video
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kyphosis
abnormal increase in curve of thoracic

spine; humpback
lordosis
abnormal increase in forward curvature of

lumbar spine; swayback
branch of medicine specializing in diagnosis

orthopedics and treatment of musculoskeletal system;
physician is an orthopedist
orthotic
brace or splint used to prevent or correct

deformities; specialist in making is an
orthotist


Figure 4.13 Abnormal spinal curvatures: kyphosis, lordosis, and

scoliosis.
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podiatry
profession specializing in diagnosis and

treatment of disorders of feet and lower leg;
practitioner is a podiatrist
prosthesis
artificial device to substitute for a missing or

damaged body part
profession specializing in making

prosthetics prostheses; specialist in making is a
prosthetist


Fractures
closed fracture
fracture with no open skin wound; also

called simple fracture
Colles fracture
common wrist fracture
comminuted
fracture
fracture where bone is shattered,

splintered, or crushed
compound
fracture
fracture with an open skin wound; also

called open fracture
compression
fracture
fracture with loss of height in vertebral

body; often from osteoporosis


Figure 4.14 A) Open (or compound) and B) closed (or simple) fractures.

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Figure 4.15 Colles fracture.

(Charles Stewart and Associates)

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Fractures
fracture (FX, Fx)
broken bone
incomplete break; one side of bone

greenstick fracture is broken, the other is bent; common
in children
impacted fracture
bone fragments are pushed into

each other
oblique fracture
fracture at an angle to bone


Figure 4.16 X-ray showing oblique fracture of the humerus.

(Charles Stewart and Associates)
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Fractures
pathologic fracture
fracture caused by diseased or

weakened bone
spiral fracture
fracture line spiral around shaft of

bone; often slower to heal
stress fracture
slight fracture caused by repetitive

low-impact forces like running
transverse
fracture
fracture is straight across bone


Figure 4.17 X-ray showing transverse fracture of radius.

(James Stevenson/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Bone Pathologies
Ewings
sarcoma
cancerous tumor of shaft of long bones;

spreads through periosteum; amputation
is necessary to prevent metastasis
osteogenic
sarcoma
most common type of bone cancer;

begins in osteocytes
osteomalacia
softening of bones caused by calcium

deficiency; caused in children with
insufficient sunlight and vitamin D


Bone Pathologies
osteoporosis
decrease in bone mass; results in

thinning and weakening of bones;
porous bone easily fractures
Pagets
disease
metabolic disease of bone; unknown

cause; results in bone destruction and
deformity
rickets
caused by calcium and vitamin D

deficiency; results in bone deformities
like bowed legs


Osteoporosis Video
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Spinal Column Pathologies

ankylosing
spondylitis
inflammatory condition resembles

rheumatoid arthritis; gradual
stiffening and fusion of vertebrae
herniated nucleus
pulposus (HNP)
protrusion of an intervertebral disk;

also called ruptured disk
scoliosis
lateral curve of spine
spina bifida
congenital anomaly; vertebra fails to

fully form around spinal cord


Figure 4.18 Color enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

image demonstrating a herniated nucleus pulposus putting
pressure on the spinal cord (see arrows).
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Figure 4.13 Abnormal spinal curvatures: kyphosis, lordosis, and

scoliosis.
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Spinal Column Pathology

spinal stenosis
narrowing of spinal canal; causes

pressure on spinal cord and nerves
spondylolisthesis
forward sliding of lumbar vertebra

over vertebra below it


Joint Pathology
bunion
inflammation of bursa at base of great toe
dislocation
bones in joint are displaced from normal

alignment
osteoarthritis results in degeneration of bone and joints;

(OA)
bone rubs against bone
autoimmune inflammation of joints with
rheumatoid
swelling, stiffness, pain; results in joint
arthritis (RA)
deformities


Figure 4.19 Patient with typical rheumatoid arthritis contractures.

(Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Arthritis Video
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Skeletal System Pathology

sprain
damage to ligaments around joint due to

overstretching; no dislocation or fracture
subluxation
incomplete dislocation; joint alignment is

disrupted, but ends of bones remain in
contact
systemic lupus autoimmune disease of connective

erythematosus tissue affecting many systems including
(SLE)
joints; looks like rheumatoid arthritis
talipes
congenital deformity of ankle

misalignment; clubfoot


Diagnostic Imaging
arthrography
visualizing joint by X-ray after injecting

contrast medium into joint
bone scan
nuclear medicine procedure;

radioactive dye is used to visualize
bones; useful for identifying stress
fractures and metastases
dual-energy
measures bone density using low dose
absorptiometry
X-ray; detects osteoporosis
(DXA)


Diagnostic Imaging
Study of spinal column after injecting
myelography opaque contrast medium; useful for
identifying herniated nucleus pulposus
radiography
uses X-rays to study internal structure of

body; especially useful for visualizing
bones and joints


Endoscopic Procedures
arthroscopy
Examining interior of joint with an

arthroscope, a fiberoptic camera; view of
joint interior appears on monitor during
procedure


Arthroscopy Video
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Surgical Procedures
amputation
removal of a limb for reasons like tumors,

gangrene, or crushing injury
arthroscopic
surgery
performing surgery while using an

arthroscope to view inside joint
bone graft
bone from another source used to replace

boney defect in another location


Surgical Procedures
bunionectomy
removal of bursa at base of great toe
laminectomy
removal of posterior arch of vertebra to

remove compression of a spinal nerve
percutaneous
diskectomy
tube is inserted into intervertebral disk

to suck out ruptured disk; may also be
done with a laser


Surgical Procedures
spinal fusion
surgical immobilization of adjacent

vertebrae
total hip
arthroplasty (THA)
implanting a prosthetic hip joint
total knee
arthroplasty (TKA)
implanting a prosthetic knee joint


Fracture Care
fixation
stabilizes fracture while it heals; external

fixation includes casts and splints; internal
fixation includes pins, plates, and screws
reduction
realigning bone fragments of fracture; closed

reduction is manipulation without surgery;
open reduction requires surgery
traction
applying a pulling force on fracture or

dislocation to restore alignment


Figure 4.20 Prosthetic hip joint.

(Lawrence Livermore National Library/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Skeletal System Pharmacology

reduce the
bone
reabsorption of bone;
reabsorption
treats osteoporosis
inhibitors
and Pagets disease
calcium
supplements
& Vitamin D
supplements
Fosamax, Boniva
supplements that
maintain bone density; Oystercal,
treats osteomalacia,
Cal-Citrate
osteoporosis, & rickets


Skeletal System Pharmacology

corticosteroids
have strong antiinflammatory

properties; treat
rheumatoid arthritis
nonsteroidal
provide mild pain relief
antiand anti-inflammatory
inflammatory
benefits; treat arthritis
drugs (NSAIDs)

prednisone,
Medrol,
Decadron
Advil, Motrin,
Aleve, Aspirin

Skeletal System Abbreviations

AE
above elbow
AK
above knee
BDT
bone density testing
BE
below elbow
BK
below knee
BMD
bone mineral density
C1, C2, etc.
first cervical vertebra, etc.



Ca
calcium
DJD
degenerative joint disease
DXA
dual-energy absorptiometry
FX, Fx
fracture
HNP
herniated nucleus pulposus
JRA
juvenile rheumatoid arthritis



L1, L2, etc.
first lumbar vertebra, etc.
LE
lower extremity
LLE
left lower extremity
LUE
left upper extremity
NSAID
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
OA
osteoarthritis
ORIF
open reduction internal fixation



Orth, ortho
orthopedics
RA
rheumatoid arthritis
RLE
right lower extremity
RUE
right upper extremity
SLE
T1, T2, etc.
first thoracic vertebra, etc.
THA
total hip arthroplasty



THR
total hip replacement
TKA
total knee arthroplasty
TKR
total knee replacement
UE
upper extremity


Muscular System at a Glance

Function
of Muscular System
Individual cells are able to contract or shorten in

length
Shortening produces movement


Muscular System at a Glance

Organs
of Muscular System
Muscles



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Muscular System Combining Forms

fasci/o
fibrous band
fibr/o
fibers
kinesi/o
movement
muscul/o muscle
my/o
muscle


Muscular System Combining Forms

myocardi/o
myos/o
plant/o
ten/o
tend/o
tendin/o
heart muscle
muscle
sole of foot
tendon
tendon
tendon


Muscular System Suffixes

asthenia
kinesia
tonia
weakness
movement
tone


Muscular System Prefixes

ab
ad
circum
away from
towards
around



Bundles
of parallel muscle tissue fibers

Fibers contract
Shorten in length
Produce movement
Move bones closer together
Push food through digestive system
Pump blood through blood vessels


Muscles Animation
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Types of Muscles
Skeletal
muscle
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Voluntary muscles
Consciously choose to contract the muscle
Skeletal muscles
Involuntary
muscles
Under control of subconscious brain

Smooth muscles and cardiac muscle


Figure 4.21 The three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, and

cardiac.
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Skeletal Muscles
Attached
to bones
Produce voluntary movement of skeleton
Also referred to as striated muscle
Looks striped under microscope


Skeletal Muscles
Muscle
is wrapped in layers of connective
tissue
Called fascia
Tapers at the end to form tendon
Inserts into periosteum to attach muscle to bone
Are
stimulated by motor neurons
Point of contact with muscle fiber is called

myoneural junction


Figure 4.22 Characteristics of the three types of muscles.

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Smooth Muscles
Associated
with internal organs
Also called visceral muscle

Stomach
Respiratory airways
Blood vessels
Called
smooth because has no microscopic
stripes
Produces involuntary movement of these
organs


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Cardiac Muscle
Also
called myocardium
Makes up walls of heart
Involuntary contraction of heart to pump blood



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Muscle Names
straight abdominal
muscle
Location
rectus abdominis
Origin
and
insertion
named for its two

sternocleidomastoid origins: sternum and
clavicle
Size
gluteus maximus

large buttock muscle

Muscle Names
Action
flexor carpi
muscle that bends the

wrist
Fiber
direction
external oblique
abdominal with fibers

running on an angle
Number of
attachment biceps
points

muscle with two heads

Skeletal Muscle Actions

Skeletal
muscles attach to two different bones

and overlap a joint
When muscle contracts both bones move, but
not equally
Origin: less moveable of 2 bones
Insertion: more moveable of 2 bones


Skeletal Muscle Actions

Action
Type of movement produced by the muscle
Antagonistic
pairs
Pair of muscles arranged around a joint

Produce opposite actions


Joint Movement Animation
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Movement Terminology
abduction
movement away from midline of body
adduction
movement toward midline of body
flexion
act of bending or being bent
extension
brings limb into a straight condition
dorsiflexion
backward bending of foot
plantar flexion
bending sole of foot; pointing toes


Figure 4.23 Abduction and adduction.

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Humerus Adduction/Abduction
Animation
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Figure 4.24 Flexion and extension.

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Elbow Flexion/Extension
Animation
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Figure 4.25 Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion.

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Ankle Dorsiflexion and Plantar

Flexion Animation
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Movement Terminology
eversion
turning outward
inversion
turning inward
pronation
turning palm downward
supination
turning palm upward
elevation
to raise
depression
to drop down


Figure 4.26 Eversion and inversion.

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Upper Saddle
Ankle Inversion and Eversion

Animation
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Figure 4.27 Pronation and supination.

Copyright
by Pearson
Education,Inc.
Inc.
Copyright
20092009
by Pearson
Education,
Upper Saddle
Elbow Pronation and Supination

Animation
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Different Circular Movements

Circumduction
Movement in circular direction from a central point
Opposition
Moving thumb away from palm to contact tip of

other fingers
Rotation
Moving around a central axis


Humerus Circumduction Animation
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Hand Opposition Animation
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Humerus Rotation Animation
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Word Building with fasci/o and kinesi/o

al
fascial
pertaining to fascia
itis
fasciitis
inflammation of fascia
otomy
fasciotomy
incision into fascia
logy
kinesiology
study of movement


Word Building with muscul/o & myos/o

ar
muscular
poly itis polymyositis

pertaining to muscles
inflammation of many
muscles

Word Building with my/o

algia
myalgia
muscle pain
asthenia myasthenia
muscle weakness
electr/o
gram
record of muscle electricity
electromyogram
cardi/o al myocardial
pathy
myopathy
plasty
myoplasty
pertaining to heart muscle

muscle disease
surgical repair of muscle
rrhaphy
rrhexis
suture a muscle
muscle rupture
myorrhaphy
myorrhexis


Word Building with

ten/o, tend/o, and tendin/o
dynia
tenodynia
tendon pain
plasty
tenoplasty
surgical repair of tendon
rrhaphy
tenorrhaphy
suture a tendon
plasty
tendoplasty
surgical repair of tendon
otomy
tendotomy
incision into a tendon
itis
tendinitis
tendon inflammation
ous
tendinous
pertaining to a tendon


Word Building with kinesia

brady
bradykinesia
slow movement
dys
dyskinesia
difficult movement
hyper
hyperkinesia
excessive movement
hypo
hypokinesia
insufficient movement


Word Building with tonia

a
atonia
lack of tone
dys
dystonia
abnormal tone
hyper
hypertonia
excessive tone
hypo
hypotonia
insufficient tone
my/o
myotonia
muscle tone


Muscular System Vocabulary

adhesion
scar tissue in fascia; makes muscle

movement difficult
atrophy
poor muscle development; result of muscle

disease or lack of use; muscle wasting
contracture
abnormal shortening of muscle fibers,

tendons, or fascia
hypertrophy increase in muscle bulk from using it


Muscle Atrophy Video
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Muscular System Vocabulary

attacks of severe pain and lameness
intermittent
caused by muscle ischemia; usually in calf
claudication
muscles
spasm
sudden, involuntary, strong muscle

contraction
torticollis
severe neck spasms pulling head to one

side; wryneck or crick in the neck


Muscle Pathology
fibromyalgia
widespread aching and pain in

muscles and soft tissue
lateral epicondylitis
inflammation of elbow muscles;

caused by strong gripping; tennis
elbow
muscular dystrophy inherited disease with progressive

(MD)
muscle atrophy
one type of inherited muscular
pseudohypertrophic
dystrophy; also called Duchennes
muscular dystrophy
muscular dystrophy


Muscular Dystrophy Video
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Pathology of Tendons, Muscles,

and/or Ligaments
carpal tunnel
syndrome
(CTS)
repetitive motion disorder; compression of

finger tendons and median nerve as they
pass through carpal tunnel of the wrist
ganglion cyst
cyst on tendon sheath; usually on hand,

wrist, or ankle
repetitive
motion
disorder
chronic disorders involving tendon,

muscles, joints, and nerve damage; tissue
is subjected to pressure, vibration, or
repetitive movements


Carpal Tunnel Video
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Pathology of Tendons, Muscles,

and/or Ligaments
rotator cuff
injury
joint capsule of shoulder joint is reinforced

by tendons; high degree of flexibility puts
rotator cuff at risk for strain and tearing
strain
damage to muscle, tendons, or ligaments

due to overuse or overstretching



creatine
phosphokinase
(CPK)
muscle enzyme found in skeletal and

cardiac muscle; elevated blood levels
indicate muscle damage; seen in
muscular dystrophy and heart attack


Muscular System Diagnostic Procedures

deep tendon
reflexes (DTR)
muscle contraction in response to

stretch; used to determine if muscles
are responding properly
study of strength and quality of

electromyography
muscle contraction in response to
(EMG)
electrical stimulation
muscle biopsy
removal of muscle tissue for

examination


Surgical Procedures
carpal tunnel
release
cutting of ligament in wrist to relieve

pressure caused by carpal tunnel
syndrome
tenodesis
surgical stabilization of a joint by

anchoring down tendons of muscles that
move the joint


Muscular System Pharmacology

skeletal muscle relax skeletal muscle
relaxants
spasms

Flexeril, Soma

Muscular System Abbreviations

CTS
carpal tunnel syndrome
CPK
creatine phosphokinase
DTR
deep tendon reflexes
EMG
electromyogram
IM
intramuscular
MD
muscular dystrophy


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 5
Cardiovascular System

Slide 13Heart Anatomy Animation
Slide 27Heart Chambers Animation
Slide 36Atrial Blood Flow Animation
Slide 38Atrial Contraction Animation
Slide 40Ventricular Contraction Animation
Slide 45Internal Heart Structures Exercise
Slide 67Blood Pressure Animation
Slide 72Cardiac Arrhythmia Video
Slide 81Blood Pressure Measurement Video
Slide 84Angina Pectoris Animation
Slide 88Coronary Artery Disease Animation
Slide 92Heart Attack Video
Slide 95Aneurysm Animation

Multimedia Directory Continued

Slide 106Electrocardiography Video
Slide 107EKG Technician Video
Slide 112Defibrillation Video


Cardiovascular System at a Glance

Functions
of Cardiovascular (CV) System
Distribute blood to all areas of body

Delivery of needed substances to cells
Removal of wastes


Cardiovascular System at a Glance

Organs
of Cardiovascular System
Heart
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins




Cardiovascular Combining Forms

angi/o
aort/o
arteri/o
ather/o
atri/o
cardi/o
vessel
aorta
artery
fatty substance
atrium
heart



coron/o
hemangi/o
phleb/o
sphygm/o
steth/o
thromb/o
heart
blood vessel
vein
pulse
chest
clot



valv/o
valvul/o
vascul/o
vas/o
ven/o
ventricul/o
valve
valve
blood vessel
vessel, duct
vein
ventricle


Cardiovascular System Suffixes

manometer
ole
tension
ule
instrument to measure pressure

small
pressure
small



Also
called circulatory system

Maintains distribution of blood throughout body
Delivers oxygen and nutrients like glucose and
amino acids to cells
Picks up carbon dioxide and other waste
products from cells and delivers to lungs, liver, and
kidneys for elimination



Is
composed of:
Heart
Blood vessels
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Divided
into pulmonary circulation and

systemic circulation


Heart Anatomy Animation
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Systemic Circulation
Between
heart and
cells of body
Carries oxygenated
blood away from left
side of heart to body
Carries
deoxygenated blood
from body to right
side of heart


Pulmonary Circulation
Between
heart and
lungs
Carries
deoxygenated blood
away from right side
of heart to lungs
Carries oxygenated
blood from lungs to
left side of heart


Figure 5.1 A schematic of the circulatory system illustrating the

pulmonary circulation picking up oxygen from the lungs and the
systemic circulation delivering oxygen to the body.

Heart
Muscular
pump
Made up of cardiac muscle fibers

Could be called a muscle instead of an organ
Beats
an average of 60 100 beats per

minute (bpm), or about 100,000 times a day
Each time the muscle contracts:
Blood is ejected from heart
Pushed throughout body within blood vessels


Heart
Located
in the mediastinum
More to left side of chest

Directly behind sternum
About
size of a fist
Shaped like upside-down pear
Tip of heart at lower edge
Called the apex


Figure 5.2 Location of the heart within

the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity.

Heart Layers
Endocardium Myocardium
Inner layer
Lines
heart
chambers
Smooth,
thin layer that
reduces friction
as the blood
passes through
heart chambers
Middle
layer
Thick muscle
Contraction of
this layer
develops the
pressure
required to
pump blood
through blood
vessels

Epicardium
Outer
layer
Forms the
visceral layer of
pericardial sac
Fluid
between
layers of
pericardial sac
reduces friction
as heart beats

Figure 5.3 Internal view of the heart illustrating the heart chambers,
heart layers, and major blood vessels associated with the heart.

Heart Chambers
Divided
into four chambers
Two atria
Two ventricles
Heart
is divided into right and left sides by a

wall called the septum


Atria
Left
and right upper

chambers
Receiving chambers
Blood returns to atria
in veins
Superior
and
inferior vena cava
Pulmonary veins


Ventricles
Left
and right lower

chambers
Pumping chambers
Thick myocardium
Blood
exits ventricles
into arteries
Aorta
Pulmonary artery


Figure 5.3 Internal view of the heart illustrating the heart chambers,
heart layers, and major blood vessels associated with the heart.

Figure 5.4 Internal view of heart specimen illustrating

heart chambers, septum, and heart valves.

Heart Chambers Animation
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Heart Valves
Four
valves in heart
Tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic
Act
as restraining gates to control direction of

blood flow
Found at entrance and exit to ventricles
Allow blood to flow only in forward direction by
blocking it from returning to previous chamber


Figure 5.4 Internal view of heart specimen illustrating

heart chambers, septum, and heart valves.

Tricuspid Valve
An
atrioventricular
valve
Between right atrium
and ventricle
Prevents blood in
ventricle from flowing
back into atrium
Has
3 leaflets or
cusps


Pulmonary Valve
A semilunar
valve
Between right
ventricle and
pulmonary artery
Prevents blood in
artery from flowing
back into ventricle
Semilunar
valve
looks like half moon


Mitral Valve
An
atrioventricular
valve
Between left atrium
and ventricle
Prevents blood in
ventricle from flowing
back into atrium
Also
called bicuspid
valve - has two
cusps


Aortic Valve
A semilunar
valve
Between
left
ventricle and aorta
Prevents blood in
aorta from flowing
back into ventricle


Figure 5.5 Superior view of heart valves illustrating

position, size, and shape of each valve.

Path of Blood Flow Through Heart

1. Deoxygenated blood
from body enters
relaxed right atrium
via two large veins
called:
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava


Atrial Blood Flow Animation
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2. Right atrium
contracts
Blood flows through

tricuspid valve into
relaxed right ventricle


Atrial Contraction Animation
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3. Right ventricle
contracts
Blood is pumped
through pulmonary
valve into pulmonary
artery
Carries blood to
lungs


Ventricular Contraction Animation
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4. Relaxed left atrium
receives blood that
has been
oxygenated by lungs
Blood enters left

atrium from the four
pulmonary veins



5. Left atrium contracts
Blood flows through

mitral valve into
relaxed left ventricle



6. Left ventricle
contracts
Blood is pumped
through the aortic
valve and into aorta
Largest artery in the
body
Carries blood to all
parts of body


Figure 5.6 The path of blood flow through the

chambers of the left and right side of the heart.

Internal Heart Structures Exercise
Click here to review the internal structures of the heart in a labeling activity.
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Systole and Diastole

Heart
chambers alternate between:
Relaxing to fill
Contracting to push blood forward
Relaxation
phase is diastole
Contraction phase is systole


Conduction System of the Heart

Autonomic
nervous system controls heart rate
Therefore, no voluntary control over heart
Special
heart tissue conducts electrical

impulses
Stimulate different chambers to contract in correct

order


Path of the Conduction System

1. Sinoatrial (SA) node,
or pacemaker, is
where electrical
impulse begins
From SA node a wave
of electricity travels
through atria
Causing them to
contract, or go into
systole



2. Next, atrioventricular
node (AV) is
stimulated
3. This node transfers
stimulation wave to
bundle of His



4. Electrical wave travels
down bundle
branches within
interventricular septum
5. Finally, Purkinje
fibers in ventricular
myocardium are
stimulated
Results in ventricular
systole


Figure 5.7 The conduction system of the heart.


Figure 5.8 An electrocardiogram (EKG) wave.


Blood Vessels
Pipes
that circulate blood through body

Three types:
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins
Lumen
is the channel within blood vessels


Arteries
Large
thick-walled vessels
Wall contains smooth muscle and can dilate or
constrict
As arteries travel through body they branch
into progressively smaller vessels called
arterioles


Figure 5.9 Comparative structure of arteries, capillaries, and veins.


Arteries
Carry
blood away from heart
Towards either lungs or cells and tissues of body

Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to
lungs
Aorta carries oxygenated blood to body
Coronary
arteries supply myocardium


Figure 5.10 The coronary arteries.


Figure 5.11 The major arteries of the body.


Capillaries
Network
of tiny, thin-walled blood vessels

called a capillary bed
Connecting unit between arteries and veins
Arterial blood flows into capillary bed
Venous blood flows out of capillary bed
Location for:
Oxygen and nutrients to diffuse out
Carbon dioxide and wastes to diffuse in




Veins
Much
thinner walls than arteries

Much lower pressure system than in arteries
Have valves to insure blood flows only towards
heart
Squeezing by skeletal muscles also assists blood
return to heart
Smallest
veins are called venules




Veins
Carry
blood towards the heart
From either the lungs or the cells and tissues of

body
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from
lungs
Superior and inferior vena cava carry deoxygenated
blood from body


Figure 5.12 The major veins of the body.


Blood Pressure
Measurement
of force exerted by blood

against walls of a vessel
May be affected by several characteristics of
blood and blood vessels
Elasticity of arteries
Diameter of blood vessels
Viscosity of blood
Volume of blood
Amount of resistance to blood flow


Blood Pressure
During
ventricular systole
Blood is under great pressure

Gives highest pressuresystolic
Top number of blood pressure reading
During
ventricular diastole
Blood isnt being pushed from heart at all

Blood pressure drops to lowest pointdiastolic
Bottom number of blood pressure reading


Blood Pressure Animation
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Word Building with angi/o

gram
angiogram
record of a vessel
itis
angiitis
inflammation of a vessel
plasty
angioplasty
surgical repair of vessel
spasm
angiospasm
involuntary muscle
contraction in a vessel
stenosis
angiostenosis
narrowing of a vessel


Word Building with aort/o & arteri/o

ic
aortic
pertaining to the aorta
al
arterial
pertaining to an artery
ole
arteriole
small artery
rrhexis
arteriorrhexis
ruptured artery


Word Building with ather/o & atri/o

ectomy
atherectomy
surgical removal of fatty

substance
oma
atheroma
fatty substance
tumor/growth
al
atrial
pertaining to the atrium
inter al interatrial

pertaining to between the

atrium

Word Building with cardi/o

ac
cardiac
brady ia bradycardia
pertaining to the heart

state of slow heart
electr/o
gram
record of hearts
electrocardiogram
electricity
megaly
cardiomegaly
enlarged heart
my/o al
myocardial
pertaining to heart
muscle
ologist
cardiologist
heart specialist
rrhexis
cardiorrhexis
ruptured heart
tachy ia tachycardia
state of fast heart

Cardiac Arrhythmia Video
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Word Building with coron/o,

phleb/o, and vascul/o
ary
coronary
pertaining to the heart
itis
phlebitis
inflammation of a vein
ar
vascular
pertaining to a blood
vessel


Word Building with valv/o & valvul/o

plasty
valvoplasty
surgical repair of valve
itis
valvulitis
inflammation of a valve
ar
valvular
pertaining to a valve


Word Building with ven/o & ventricul/o

ous
venous
pertaining to veins
ule
venule
small vein
gram
venogram
record of a vein
ar
ventricular
pertaining to ventricles
inter ar interventricular

pertaining to between
ventricles

Cardiovascular Vocabulary
auscultation
listening to sounds within body using a

stethoscope
cardiology
branch of medicine for diagnosis and

treatment of cardiovascular disease;
physician is a cardiologist
catheter
flexible tube inserted in body to move fluids

into or out of body; may be used to place
dye into a vein to view blood vessels


infarct
area of necrotic tissue due to loss of blood

supply
ischemia
local and temporary deficiency of blood

supply due to a circulatory obstruction
murmur
abnormal heart sound such as soft blowing

sound or a harsh click; also called a bruit
orthostatic
sudden drop in blood pressure when
hypotension standing up suddenly


palpitations
pounding, racing heartbeats
plaque
yellow, fatty deposit of lipids in an artery;

hallmark of atherosclerosis
regurgitation
to flow backwards; in CV system refers to

backflow of blood through a valve


sphygmomanometer
blood pressure cuff; measures

blood pressure
stent
stainless steel tube placed within

blood vessel to widen the lumen
stethoscope
instrument for listening to body

sounds


Figure 5.13 Using a sphygmomanometer

to measure blood pressure.

Blood Pressure Measurement

Video
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Figure 5.14 A) A catheter is used to place a collapsed stent next to

an atherosclerotic plaque; B) stent is expanded; C) catheter is
removed, leaving the expanded stent behind.

Heart Pathology
angina
pectoris
severe pain and sensation of constriction

around heart; caused by myocardial
ischemia
arrhythmia
irregularity in heartbeat; some are mild and

others are life threatening
electrical impulse is blocked from traveling

bundle
down bundle branches; results in ventricles
branch
beating at different rate than atria; also
block (BBB)
called heart block


Angina Pectoris Animation
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Heart Pathology
cardiac arrest
complete stopping of heart activity
myocardial disease; may be caused by

viral infection, congestive heart failure,
cardiomyopathy
or alcoholism; common reason for heart
transplant
congenital
septal defect
(CSD)
hole, present at birth, in heart septum;

allows mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood


Heart Pathology
congestive
heart failure
(CHF)
left ventricle muscle is too weak to

efficiently pump blood; results in
weakness, breathlessness, & edema
coronary
poor blood supply to heart muscle due to
artery disease obstruction of coronary arteries; may
(CAD)
cause angina pectoris and heart attack
endocarditis
inflammation of lining membranes of

heart; if cause is bacterial may have a
bacterial colony form, called vegetation


Figure 5.15 Formation of an atherosclerotic plaque within a

coronary artery.

Coronary Artery Disease

Animation
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Heart Pathology
fibrillation
extremely serious arrhythmia characterized

by quivering of heart fibers; cardiac arrest
and death can occur
flutter
arrhythmia in which atria beat too rapidly,

but in a regular pattern
heart valve
prolapse
cusps are too loose and fail to shut tightly;

allowing regurgitation
heart valve
stenosis
cusps are too stiff; unable to shut tightly;

allowing regurgitation


Heart Pathology
myocardial
occlusion of coronary artery; results in a
infarction (MI) myocardial infarct; a heart attack
myocarditis
inflammation of heart muscle layer
pericarditis
inflammation of pericardial sac
tetralogy of
Fallot
combination of four congenital

anomalies; pulmonary stenosis,
interventricular septal defect, improper
placement of aorta, hypertrophy of right
ventricle; requires immediate surgery


Figure 5.16 External and cross-sectional view of an infarct caused

by a myocardial infarction.

Heart Attack Video
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Blood Vessel Pathology

aneurysm
weakness and ballooning of arterial

wall; commonly seen in abdominal and
cerebral arteries
hardening & loss of elasticity of arterial

arteriosclerosis
walls; often due to atherosclerosis
atherosclerosis
most common form of arteriosclerosis;

lipid plaques form in arterial wall


Figure 5.17 Illustration of a large aneurysm in the abdominal aorta

which has ruptured.

Aneurysm Animation
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Figure 5.18 Development of an atherosclerotic plaque that

progressively narrows the lumen of an artery to the point that a
thrombus fully occludes the lumen.


coarctation of
aorta (CoA)
severe congenital narrowing of aorta
embolus
obstruction of blood vessel by blood

clot that has broken off from a
thrombus in another site
hemorrhoid
varicose veins in anal region


Figure 5.19 Illustration of an embolus floating in an artery. The

embolus will become lodged in a blood vessel that is smaller than it
is, resulting in occlusion of that artery.


hypertension
(HTN)
high blood pressure; essential or

primary hypertension is due to CV
disease; secondary hypertension results
from another disease
hypotension
decrease in blood pressure; may be due

to shock or anemia
patent ductus
arteriosus
(PDA)
congenital heart anomaly where fetal

connection between pulmonary artery
and aorta fails to close at birth



peripheral
abnormal condition affecting any blood
vascular
vessel outside the heart; symptoms may
disease (PVD) include pain, pallor, & blocked circulation
polyarteritis
inflammation of several arteries
Raynauds
phenomenon
periodic ischemic attacks affecting

extremities; especially fingers, toes,
ears, and nose; extremities become
cyanotic; triggered by cold exposure



thrombophlebitis
inflammation of vein resulting in blood

clots within a vein
thrombus
blood clot within a blood vessel; may

partially or completely occlude blood
vessel
varicose veins
swollen and distended veins; often in

the legs



cardiac
enzymes
blood test determines level of enzymes

specific to heart muscle in blood; an
increase may indicate heart muscle
damage such as a myocardial infarction
serum
lipoprotein
level
blood test measures amount of cholesterol

and triglycerides in blood; indicator of
atherosclerosis risk


Diagnostic Imaging
angiography
X-rays taken after injection of opaque dye

into blood vessel
nuclear medicine scan using radioactive

cardiac scan thallium; especially useful in determining
myocardial damage


Diagnostic Imaging
Doppler
ultrasonography
using ultrasound to produce an

image of blood flowing through blood
vessels in order to determine
velocity; indicates blood clots or deep
vein thromboses
echocardiography
use of ultrasound to visualize internal

cardiac structures; especially valves
venography
X-ray of veins; used to identify a

thrombus


Cardiac Function Tests

cardiac
catheterization
catheter is threaded through blood

vessel to heart; detects
abnormalities, collects cardiac
blood samples, and determines
blood pressure inside heart
process of recording electrical

electrocardiography activity of heart; able to diagnose
(ECG, EKG)
arrhythmias and myocardial
damage


Electrocardiography Video
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EKG Technician Video
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Cardiac Function Tests

Holter
monitor
portable ECG monitor worn by patient up

to a few days to assess heart activity as
person goes through daily activities
stress
testing
evaluates cardiovascular fitness; patient

exercises on treadmill or bicycle with a
steadily increasing work load; EKC and
oxygen levels are monitored throughout
the test


Figure 5.20 Man undergoing stress test on a treadmill. (Jonathan Nourok/PhotoEdit Inc.)


Medical Procedures
procedure to restore cardiac output
cardiopulmonary
and oxygenate air for person in cardiac
resuscitation
arrest; uses chest compressions and
(CPR)
artificial respiration
defibrillation
procedure that converts irregular

heartbeats, such as fibrillation, using
an electric shock
extracorporeal
routing blood to a heart-lung machine
circulation (ECC) during a surgical procedure


Figure 5.21 An emergency medical technician positions

defibrillator paddles on the chest of a supine male patient.

Defibrillation Video
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Medical Procedures
implantable
cardioverterdefibrillator
device implanted into the heart to

deliver an electric shock to restore
normal heart rhythm; especially helpful
for ventricular fibrillation
pacemaker
implantation
device implanted into the heart to

substitute for the natural pacemaker;
especially helpful for bradycardia


Figure 5.22 Color enhanced X-ray showing pacemaker implanted in the chest and the
electrode wires running to the heart. (UHB Trust/Getty Images Inc.Stone Allstock)


Medical Procedures
thrombolytic
therapy
use of drugs, such as streptokinase or

tissue-type plasminogen activator, to
dissolve clots and restore blood flow


Surgical Procedures
aneurysmectomy
surgical removal of an aneurysm
arterial
anastomosis
surgical joining of two arteries when

an artery is severed or a damaged
section is removed
coronary artery
bypass graft
(CABG)
blood vessel from another location

(often a leg vein) is grafted to route
blood around a blocked coronary
artery
embolectomy
surgical removal of an embolus


Surgical Procedures
removal of the diseased inner lining
endarterectomy of an artery; usually to remove
atherosclerotic plaques
replacement of a diseased heart
heart transplant
with a donor heart
intracoronary
artery stent
placing a stent within a coronary

artery; treats coronary ischemia due
to atherosclerosis
ligation &
stripping
removal of varicose veins; damaged

vein is tied off (ligation) and then
removed (stripping)


Surgical Procedures
percutaneous
transluminal
coronary
angioplasty
(PTCA)
balloon catheter is inserted through

skin into coronary artery; inflated to
dilate the narrow blood vessel
valve replacement
removal of diseased valve and

replacement with an artificial valve


Figure 5.23 Balloon angioplasty.


Cardiovascular Pharmacology
ACE inhibitor
drugs
produce vasodilation to
decrease blood pressure
antiarrhythmic
reduces or prevents cardiac Tambocor,

arrhythmias
Corvert
anticoagulant
prevents blood clot

formation
Warfarin,
Coumadin
antilipidemic
reduces blood cholesterol

level
Lipitor,
Zocor

Lotensin,
Capoten

Betablocker
lowers heart rate to treat

hypertension and angina
pectoris
Calcium
channel
blocker
decreases force of heart beat to

treat hypertension, angina
Cardizem,
pectoris, and congestive heart Procardia
failure
Lopressor,
Inderal
increases force of heart

cardiotonic contraction to treat congestive
heart failure

Lanoxin

diuretic
increases urine
production to reduce
plasma volume to
lower blood pressure
Lasix
thrombolytic
dissolves existing
blood clot
Plavix, Activase


contracts smooth muscle in
vasoconstrictor wall of blood vessel to raise
blood pressure
vasodilator
relaxes smooth muscle in

wall of blood vessel to
reduce blood pressure and
increase blood flow to
ischemic area

Aramine
Nitro-Dur,
Vasodilan

Cardiovascular Abbreviations
AFB
atrial fibrillation
AMI
acute myocardial infarction
AS
arteriosclerosis
ASD
atrial septal defect
ASHD
arteriosclerotic heart disease
AV, A-V
atrioventricular
BBB
bundle branch block
BP
blood pressure


bpm
beats per minute
CABG
coronary artery bypass graft
CAD
coronary artery disease
cath
catheterization
CC
cardiac catheterization, chief complaint
CCU
coronary care unit
CHF
congestive heart failure
CoA
coarctation of the aorta


CP
chest pain
CPK
creatine phosphokinase
CPR
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CSD
congenital septal defect
CV
cardiovascular
DVT
deep vein thrombosis
ECC
extracorporeal circulation
ECG, EKG
electrocardiogram


ECHO
echocardiogram
GOT
glutamic- oxaloacetic transaminase
HTN
hypertension
ICU
intensive care unit
IV
intravenous
LDH
lactate dehydrogenase


LVAD
left ventricular assist device
LVH
left ventricular hypertrophy
MI
myocardial infarction, mitral insufficiency
mmHg
millimeters of mercury
MR
mitral regurgitation
MS
mitral stenosis
MVP
mitral valve prolapse


P
pulse
PAC
premature atrial contraction
PDA
patent ductus arteriosus
PTCA
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
PVC
premature ventricular contraction
S1
first heart sound
S2
second heart sound


SA, S-A
sinoatrial
SGOT
serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase
SK
streptokinase
tPA
tissue-type plasminogen activator
Vfib
ventricular fibrillation
VSD
ventricular septal defect
VT
ventricular tachycardia


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 6
Blood and the Lymphatic and
Immune Systems


Slide 27Blood Type Exercise
Slide 44
Sickle Cell Anemia Animation
Slide 46Leukemia Video
Slide 51Lab Technicians Video
Slide 54Phlebotomy Video
Slide 69Lymphatic System Animation
Slide 89Lymphatic System Exercise
Slide 110Inflammation Video
Slide 112Anaphylaxis Animation
Slide 117AIDS Video


Blood at a Glance: Functions

Transports
substances throughout body
Substances are attached to red blood cells or

dissolved in plasma
White
blood cells fight infection and disease

Platelets initiate blood clotting process


Blood at a Glance: Components

Blood
cells (formed elements)
Erythrocytes
Platelets
Leukocytes
Plasma



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Blood Combining Forms

agglutin/o
bas/o
chrom/o
coagul/o
eosin/o
erythr/o
fibrin/o
granul/o
clumping
base
color
clotting
rosy red
red
fibers, fibrous
granules


Blood Combining Forms

hem/o
hemat/o
leuk/o
morph/o
neutr/o
phag/o
sanguin/o
thromb/o
blood
blood
white
shape
neutral
eat, swallow
blood
clot


Blood Suffixes
-apheresis
-cytosis
-emia
-globin
-penia
-phil
-poiesis
-stasis
removal
more than normal number of cells
blood condition
protein
abnormal decrease
attraction for
formation
standing still



Average
adult has about five liters of blood

Circulates through body within blood vessels
Blood cells are produced in red bone marrow
Process called hematopoiesis



Is
a mixture of cells floating in a fluid

Fluid is plasma
Cells are called formed elements
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets


Plasma
About
55% of whole
blood
Plasma is 9092%
water
Remaining 810% is
dissolved
substances


Dissolved Substances in Plasma

Plasma
proteins
Albumin helps transport fatty substances

Globulin gamma globulins are antibodies
Fibrinogen blood clotting protein
Additional
important substances
Calcium, potassium, sodium, glucose, amino acids,

fats, urea, creatinine


Components of blood.
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Red Blood Cells (RBC)

Called
erythrocytes
Enucleated
No nucleus
Biconcave
disk
5 million per cubic
millimeter of blood
Adult has 35 trillion;
more in males


Erythrocytes
Hemoglobin
(Hgb, Hb) gives red color
Pigment containing iron

Responsible for oxygen transport
Life
span of 120 days
Spleen removes worn out ones

Iron can be reused
Bilirubin is waste product disposed of by liver


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White Blood Cells (WBC)

Also
called
leukocytes
Spherical shape with
large nucleus
8,000 per cubic
millimeter of blood


Leukocytes
Provide
protection against pathogens
Bacteria
Viruses
Foreign material
Subdivided
into two categories
Granulocytes have granules in cytoplasm

Agranulocytes no granules in cytoplasm


Leukocyte Classification
Granulocytes
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Release histamine and heparin

to damaged tissue
Destroy parasites and increase
during allergic reaction
Important for phagocytosis
Agranulocytes
Monocytes
Important for phagocytosis
Lymphocytes Provide protection through immunity


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Platelets
Older
term is
thrombocyte
Smallest of all blood
elements
Plate-like fragments
of larger cell
200,000-300,000 per
cubic millimeter


Platelets
Critical
in blood clotting
Hemostasis
Agglutinate
into small clusters when blood

vessel is damaged
Leads to formation of thrombin
Which converts fibrinogen to fibrin
Results in formation of mesh-like blood clot


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Blood Typing
Each
Due to presence of marker proteins on surface of

erythrocytes
Must
persons blood is different from others
do blood typing before blood transfusion
Test to determine if donated blood is compatible

with recipients blood
There
are many different blood markers
Two most important ones for transfusions are ABO

system and Rh factor


ABO System
There
are two possible RBC markers, A and B

Person with A marker has type A blood
Type A blood produces anti-B antibodies
Anti-B antibodies attack type B and type AB blood
Person
with B marker has type B blood
Type B blood produces anti-A antibodies

Anti-A antibodies attack type A and type AB blood


ABO System
Person
with no marker has type O blood
Type O blood produces anti-A & anti-B antibodies

These antibodies will attack type A, type B, and
type AB blood
Person
with both markers has type AB blood
Type AB blood produces no antibodies

Therefore it will not attack any other blood types


Blood Type Exercise
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Universal Donor
Because
type O blood does not have either

marker A or B, it will not react with anti-A or
anti-B antibodies found in other blood types
For this reason a person with type O blood is
referred to as a universal donor
In an extreme emergency, type O blood may
be given to a person with any other blood type


Universal Recipient
Because
a person with type AB blood has no

antibodies against other blood types, it will not
react with other blood
For this reason, type AB blood is the universal
recipient
In an extreme emergency, a person with type
AB blood may receive any type of blood


Rh Factor
Person
with Rh factor on red blood cells is

Rh-positive (Rh+)
Will not make anti-Rh antibodies
Person
without Rh factor is Rh-negative (Rh-)
Will produce anti-Rh antibodies
Rh+
person may receive either Rh+ or Rhtransfusion, but Rh- person can receive only
Rh- blood


Word Building with fibrin/o and hem/o

gen
fibrinogen
fiber producing
lysis
fibrinolysis
fiber destruction
ous
fibrinous
pertaining to fibers
globin
hemoglobin
blood protein
lysis
hemolysis
blood destruction
lytic
hemolytic
blood destruction
rrhage
hemorrhage
rapid flow of blood


Word Building with hemat/o and

sanguin/o
ologist
hematologist
blood specialist
ic
hematic
pertaining to blood
ous
sanguinous
pertaining to blood


Word Building with cyte

erythr/o
erythrocyte
red cell
leuk/o
leukocyte
white cell
thromb/o
thrombocyte
clotting cell
granul/o
granulocyte
granular cell
a granul/o agranulocyte

not a granular cell

Word Building with cytosis & penia

erythr/o
erythrocytosis
too many red cells
leuk/o
leukocytosis
too many white cells
thromb/o
thrombocytosis too many clotting cells
erythr/o
erythropenia
too few red (cells)
leuk/o
leukopenia
too few white (cells)
thromb/o
thrombopenia
too few clotting (cells)
pan cyt/o
pancytopenia
too few all cells


Word Building with poiesis

erythr/o
erythropoiesis
red (cell) producing
leuk/o
leukopoiesis
white (cell) producing
thromb/o
thrombopoiesis
clotting (cell) producing
hemat/o
hematopoiesis
blood producing


Blood Vocabulary
blood clot
hard collection of fibrin, blood cells, and

tissue debris; end result of hemostasis
coagulate
to convert a liquid to a solid; as in blood

clotting
dyscrasia
general term for disease affecting blood
hematology
branch of medicine specializing in blood

conditions; physician is a hematologist


Figure 6.4 Electronmicrograph showing a blood clot, composed of

fibrin, red blood cells, and tissue debris.
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Blood Vocabulary
hematoma
collection of blood under skin as a result

of blood escaping into tissue from
damaged blood vessels
hemostasis
to stop bleeding or stagnation of blood

flow through tissues
packed cells
transfusion of only blood cells without

plasma
whole blood
mixture of both plasma and formed

elements


Blood Pathology
hemophilia
genetic disorder; blood fails to clot

due to lack of one clotting factor
hyperlipidemia
excessive level of lipids in the blood

stream; risk factor for atherosclerosis
septicemia
having bacteria or their toxins in the

bloodstream; also called blood
poisoning


Erythrocyte Pathology
anemia
group of conditions characterized by a

reduction in number of RBCs or the amount
of hemoglobin; results in less oxygen
reaching tissues
aplastic
anemia
severe anemia in which red bone marrow

stops making sufficient blood cells; may
require bone marrow transplant
hemolytic
anemia
results from excessive loss of RBCs


hemolytic
reaction
destruction of RBCs when patient

receives mismatched blood transfusion
hypochromic
anemia
results from insufficient amount of

hemoglobin in RBCs; unable to transport
sufficient oxygen
irondeficiency
anemia
results from insufficient amount of iron to

make hemoglobin for RBCs


pernicious
anemia (PA)
insufficient absorption of vitamin B12;

unable to make enough RBCs
polycythemia condition of having too many RBCs; blood

vera
is too thick and flows sluggishly
sickle cell
anemia
genetic disorder where RBCs take on

abnormal sickle shape; become more
fragile leading to hemolytic anemia
thalassemia
genetic disorder where unable to produce

functioning hemoglobin


Figure 6.5 Comparison of normal-shaped erythrocytes and the

abnormal sickle shape noted in patients with sickle cell anemia.
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Sickle Cell Anemia Animation
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Leukocyte Pathology
leukemia
cancer of white blood cell-forming

portion of red bone marrow; results
in large number of abnormal and
immature WBCs circulating in blood
stream


Leukemia Video
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blood culture &
sensitivity
(C&S)
blood is incubated to identify infecting

bacteria and then test determines best
antibiotic to use
set of blood tests: RBC count, WBC

complete blood
count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, white
count (CBC)
blood cell differential, and platelet count
erythrocyte
sedimentation
rate (ESR)
determines rate at which RBCs settle in

a test tube; indicates presence of
inflammation in body



hematocrit
(HCT, Hct, crit)
measures volume of RBCs
hemoglobin
(Hgb, hb)
measures amount of hemoglobin

present
platelet count
determines number of platelets
prothrombin
time (Pro time,
PT)
measures how long needed for blood to

coagulate and form a clot



red blood cell count
measures number of RBCs
(RBC)
red blood cell
morphology
examines RBCs for abnormalities in

shape
sequential multiple
analyzer computer
(SMAC)
machine for doing multiple blood

chemistry tests automatically



white blood cell
measures number of leukocytes
count (WBC)
white blood cell determines the number of each type of
differential (diff) WBC


Lab Technicians Video
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Medical Procedures
bone marrow
aspiration
sample of bone marrow removed by

aspiration and examined for diseases
such as leukemia and aplastic anemia
phlebotomy
incision into vein in order to withdraw

blood for testing; also called
venipuncture


Figure 6.6 Phlebotomist using a needle to withdraw blood.

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Phlebotomy Video
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Medical Procedures
autologous
transfusion
collection and storage of patients

own blood prior to actual need
blood transfusion
artificial transfer of blood into the

bloodstream
bone marrow
transplant (BMT)
patient receives red bone marrow

from donor after patients own bone
marrow has been destroyed


Medical Procedures
homologous
transfusion
replacement blood with blood from

another person
plasmapheresis
removal of whole blood, separation

of plasma from formed elements;
formed elements returned to patient
with donor plasma transfusion


Blood Pharmacology
anticoagulant
prevents blood clot

formation
antihemorrhagic prevents bleeding
warfarin,
Coumadin
Amicar,
Vitamin K
antiplatelet
agent
interferes with action of

Plavix, Ticlid
platelets
hematinic
increases number of
RBCs and hemoglobin
Procrit,
Aranesp
thrombolytic
dissolves existing clots
Activase,
Streptase


Blood Abbreviations
ALL
acute lymphocytic leukemia
AML
acute myelogenous leukemia
basos
basophils
BMT
bone marrow transplant
CBC
complete blood count
CLL
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
CML
chronic myelogenous leukemia


Blood Abbreviations
diff
differential
eosins, eos
eosinophils
ESR, SR, sed rate
erythrocyte sedimentation rate
HCT, Hct, crit
hematocrit
Hbg, Hb, HGB
hemoglobin
lymphs
lymphocytes
monos
monocytes


Blood Abbreviations
PA
pernicious anemia
PCV
packed cell volume
PMN, polys
polymorphonuclear neutrophil
PT, pro-time
prothrombin time
RBC
red blood cell
Rh+
Rh positive


Blood Abbreviations
Rh-
Rh negative
segs
segmented neutrophil
SMAC
sequential multiple analyzer computer
WBC
white blood cell


The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

at a Glance
Functions
of the Lymphatic System
Network of vessels that picks up excess tissue fluid,

cleanses it, and returns it to circulatory system
Picks up fats absorbed by digestive system
Functions
of Immune System
Fights disease and infections


The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

at a Glance
Organs
of the Lymphatic System
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic vessels
Thymus gland
Spleen
Tonsils



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Lymphatic & Immune Combining Forms

adenoid/o
immun/o
lymph/o
lymphaden/o
lymphangi/o
adenoids
protection
lymph
lymph node
lymph vessel


Lymphatic & Immune Combining Forms

path/o
splen/o
thym/o
tonsill/o
tox/o
disease
spleen
thymus
tonsils
poison


Lymphatic and Immune Suffix

globulin
protein



Network
of:
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Thymus gland
Tonsils
Perform
diverse functions


Lymphatic System Animation
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First,
removes
excess tissue fluid
Collects excess
tissue fluid
throughout body
Purifies it as it passes
through system
Returns it to
circulatory system
Lymph = fluid within
lymphatic vessels


Figure 6.7 Lymphatic vessels (green) pick up excess tissue fluid,

purify it in lymph nodes, and return it to the circulatory system.
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Second,
lymph vessels around the small

intestine assist with fat absorption
Picks up absorbed fats
Delivers to circulatory system
These lymph vessels are called lacteals



Third,
lymphatic and immune systems work

together
Form a group of cells, tissues, organs, & molecules
Bodys primary defense against pathogens
Including foreign invaders and own cells that have

become diseased


Lymphatic Vessels
Network
of vessels
throughout body
One-way pipes
conducting lymph
from tissues toward
thoracic cavity
Low pressure system
Uses valves to
prevent backflow


Figure 6.8b Photomicrograph of lymphatic vessel with valve clearly

visible. (Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Lymphatic Vessels
Begin
as very small
lymph capillaries in
tissues
Capillaries merge into
larger lymph vessels
Finally
drain into one

of two large
lymphatic ducts in
thoracic cavity


Figure 6.9 Location of lymph vessels, lymphatic ducts, and areas of

lymph node concentrations.
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Lymph Nodes
Also
called lymph
glands
But not real glands

Composed of
lymphatic tissue
Located along route
of lymphatic vessels


Figure 6.10 Structure of a lymph node.

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Lymph Nodes
House
lymphocytes and antibodies
Remove pathogens and cell debris from lymph as

it passes through
Trap and destroy cells from cancerous tumors


Sites for Lymph Nodes

Name
Axillary
Cervical
Inguinal
Mediastinal
Location
Armpits
Neck
Groin
Chest

Drains fluid from:

Arms
Head and neck
Legs and pelvis
Within chest cavity

Figure 6.9 Location of lymph vessels, lymphatic ducts, and areas of

lymph node concentrations.
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Tonsils
Collections
of lymphatic tissue located on each

side of throat
There are three sets of tonsils
Palatine tonsils
Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
Lingual tonsils


Tonsils
All
contain a large number of leukocytes
Act as filters
Prevent invasion of pathogens through digestive or
respiratory systems
Not
required for life and can safely be

removed if they become a continuous site of
infection


Spleen
Located
in LUQ of
abdomen
Consists of
lymphatic tissue that
is highly infiltrated
with blood vessels
Vessels spread out

into slow moving
blood sinuses


Spleen
Phagocytic
macrophages line blood sinuses to

remove pathogens
Because blood is moving through slowly,
macrophages have time to identify pathogens
and worn out RBCs
Filters out and destroys old red blood cells,
recycling the iron
Not an essential organ for life and may be
removed due to injury or disease


Thymus Gland
Located
in upper portion of mediastinum

Secretes hormone, thymosin
Changes lymphocytes to T lymphocytes (simply

called T cells)
Active
in unborn child and throughout

childhood until adolescence, when it begins to
shrink in size


Thymus Gland
Essential
for proper development of immune
system
Assists body with immune function and
development of antibodies
Important role in the immune response


Lymphatic System Exercise
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Immunity
Bodys
ability to defend itself against

pathogens
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, toxins,

cancerous tumors
Two
forms
Natural immunity
Acquired immunity


Natural Immunity
Also
called innate immunity

Not specific to a particular disease
Doesnt require prior exposure to pathogen
Example:
Macrophage
WBCs that ingest any pathogen encountered


Figure 6.14 Enhanced photomicrograph showing a macrophage

(purple) attacking bacillus Escherichia coli (yellow).
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Acquired Immunity
Bodys
response to a specific pathogen

May be either:
Passive acquired immunity
Active acquired immunity


Acquired Immunity
Passive
acquired immunity
Results when a person receives protective

substances produced by another human or animal
Examples: maternal antibodies, antitoxin
Active
acquired immunity
Develops following direct exposure to pathogen

Stimulates immune response series of
mechanisms designed to neutralize pathogen
Immunizations or vaccinations are special types
of active acquired immunity


Immune Response
Disease-causing
agents called antigens

stimulate immune response
Two distinct and different processes
Humoral immunity (also called antibody-mediated
immunity)
Cellular immunity (also called cell-mediated
immunity)


Humoral Immunity
Involves
production of B lymphocytes
Also called B cells

Respond to antigens by producing a protective
protein, an antibody
Antibodies combine with antigen to form antigenantibody complex
Targets pathogen for phagocytosis
Prevents infectious agent from damaging healthy
cells


Cellular Immunity
Involves
production of T cells and natural

killer cells (NK)
These defense cells are cytotoxic
Physically attack and destroy pathogenic cells


Standard Precautions
There
are a large number of pathogens in a

hospital setting
Nosocomial infection acquired in the hospital
Cross infection pathogen acquired from another
person
Reinfection becomes infected again with same
pathogen
Self-inoculation pathogen from one part of
patients body spreads to another part of body


Summary of
Standard Precaution Guidelines
1. Wash hands before putting on and after
removing gloves and before and after
working with patient or equipment.
2. Wear gloves when in contact with any body
fluid, mucous membrane, or non-intact skin
or if you have chapped hands, a rash, or
open sores.
3. Wear nonpermeable gown or apron during
procedures that are likely to expose you to
any body fluid, mucous membrane, or nonintact skin.

Summary of
Standard Precaution Guidelines
4. Wear mask and protective eyewear or a face
shield when patients are coughing or if body
fluid droplets or splashes are likely.
5. Wear face mask and eyewear that seal close
to the face during procedures that cause body
tissues to be vaporized.
6. Remove for proper cleaning any shared
equipment that has come into contact with
body fluids, mucous membrane, or non-intact
skin.

Word Building with

adenoid/o & immun/o
ectomy
adenoidectomy surgical removal of adenoids
itis
adenoiditis
inflammation of adenoids
logist
immunologist
immunity specialist


Word Building with lymph/o

aden/o
ectomy
lymphadenectomy
surgical removal of
lymph gland
aden/o
pathy
lymphadenopathy lymph gland disease
angi/o gram lymphangiogram
record of lymph vessel
angi/o oma lymphangioma
lymph vessel tumor
oma
lymphoma
lymphatic tumor
tic
lymphatic
pertaining to lymph


Word Building with path/o & splen/o

genic
pathogenic
disease producing
logy
pathology
study of disease
ectomy
splenectomy
surgical removal of spleen
megaly
splenomegaly
enlarged spleen


Word Building with thym/o & tonsill/o

ectomy
thymectomy
surgical removal of thymus
oma
thymoma
thymus tumor
ar
tonsillar
pertaining to tonsils
ectomy
tonsillectomy
surgical removal of tonsils
itis
tonsillitis
inflammation of tonsils


Lymphatic & Immune Vocabulary

allergen
antigen causing an allergic reaction
allergist
physician who specializes in testing for

and treating allergies
allergy
hypersensitivity to a common substance
disease resulting from immune system

autoimmune attacking its own body is if a pathogen;
disease
examples include rheumatoid arthritis and



hives
appearance of wheals as part of

allergic reaction
human
immunodeficiency
virus (HIV)
virus that causes AIDS; known as

a retrovirus
immune system that does not

immunocompromised function properly; also called
immunodeficiency disorder
immunoglobins
antibodies; assist in protecting the

body


Figure 6.15 Color enhanced scanning electron micrograph of HIV virus (red)
infecting T-helper cells (green).
(NIBSC/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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immunology
branch of medicine concerned with

treating immune system disorders
inflammation
tissues response to injury; redness, pain,

swelling, and feeling hot to touch
lymphedema
excessive tissue fluid due to blocked

lymphatic flow
opportunistic
infection
infection appearing in
immunocompromised person
urticaria
severe itching associated with hives


Figure 6.16 Inflammation as illustrated by cellulitis of the arm. Note

that the area is red and swollen. It is also painful and hot to touch.
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Inflammation Video
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Allergic Reactions
anaphylactic
shock
life-threatening condition from severe

allergic reaction; circulatory and
respiratory problems occur; also called
anaphylaxis


Anaphylaxis Animation
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Lymphatic System Pathology

inflammation and obstruction of lymph
elephantiasis vessels; results in enlarged tissues due to
edema
Hodgkins
cancer of the lymphatic cells found in
disease (HD) concentration in lymph nodes
inflammation of lymph nodes; commonly
lymphadenitis
called swollen glands


Figure 6.17 Late-stage Hodgkins disease with tumor eroding skin

above cancerous lymph node.
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Lymphatic System Pathology

mononucleosis acute viral infection with large number of
(mono)
atypical lymphocytes
non-Hodgkins
lymphoma
(NHL)
cancer of the lymphatic tissues other

than Hodgkins lymphoma


Immune System Pathology

acquired
defect in cell-mediated immunity;
immunodeficiency
result of final stages of HIV infection
syndrome (AIDS)
AIDS-related
complex (ARC)
early stage of AIDS; mild symptoms;

weight loss, fatigue, anorexia
graft vs. host

disease (GVHD)
complication of bone marrow

transplant; immune cells from donor
marrow attack recipients body


AIDS Video
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Immune System Pathology

Kaposis sarcoma
(KS)
skin cancer seen in AIDS patients;

brownish-purple skin lesions
Pneumocystis
carinii pneumonia
(PCP)
common in AIDS patients; an

opportunistic infection
sarcoidosis
autoimmune disease; forms fibrous

lesions in multiple organs of body
severe combined
genetic disorder; born without a
immunodeficiency
functioning immune system
syndrome (SCIDS)



enzyme-linked blood test for an antibody to AIDS virus;
immunosorbent positive test means person has been
assay (ELISA) exposed to virus
Western blot
used as a backup to ELISA test for HIV


Diagnostic Imaging
lymphangiography X-ray taken after injection of dye


Additional Diagnostic Procedures

Monospot
test for mononucleosis
scratch test
allergy testing in which body is exposed to

allergens through light scratch in skin


Figure 6.18 A) Scratch test; patient is exposed to allergens through light

scratch in the skin. B) Positive scratch test results. Inflammation indicates
person is allergic to that substance.
(James King-Holmes/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Medical Procedures
immunotherapy
patient receives immunoglobulin

injection or antibodies to treat a disease
vaccination
exposure to weakened pathogen to

stimulate immune response; person will
then be able to fight off pathogen if
exposed to it in the future; also called
immunization


Surgical Procedures
lymphadenectomy
surgical removal of a lymph node;

done to test for malignancy or
metastasis


Lymphatic and Immune Pharmacology

antihistamine
blocks histamine release

during allergic reaction
Zyrtec,
Benadryl
anti-inflammatory; used to
prednisone,
corticosteroids treat autoimmune
Solu-Medrol
diseases
immunosuppressants
blocks immune system;

prevents rejection of
transplant

CellCept,
Neoral

Lymphatic and Immune Pharmacology

inhibits protease, enzyme
protease
needed for viruses to
inhibitor drugs
reproduce
Crixivan,
Fortovase
inhibits reverse
reverse
transcriptase, enzyme
transcriptase
needed for viruses to
inhibitor drugs
reproduce
Epivir,
Retrovir


Lymphatic and Immune Abbreviations

AIDS
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ARC
AIDS-related complex
ELISA
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
GVHD
graft vs. host disease
HD
Hodgkins disease
HIV
human immunodeficiency virus


Lymphatic & Immune Abbreviations

Ig
immunoglobulin
KS
Kaposis sarcoma
mono
mononucleosis
NHL
non-Hodgkins lymphoma
NK
natural killer cells
PCP
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
SCIDS
severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome


Medical Terminology
A Living Language


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 7
Respiratory System


Slide 17Respiratory System Animation
Slide 47Respiratory System Structure Exercise
Slide 75Respiratory Therapy Video
Slide 79Asthma Video
Slide 83COPD Video
Slide 84Cystic Fibrosis Video
Slide 90
Tuberculosis Testing Video
Slide 98
Oximetry Video
Slide 99
Spirometry Video
Slide 102
Nebulizer Video
Slide 103
Metered Dose Inhaler Video
Slide 104
Endotrachael Intubation Video
Slide 107
Nasal Cannula Video

Respiratory System at a Glance

Functions
of the Respiratory System
Inhale fresh air into lungs

Exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide
Exhale stale air


Respiratory System at a Glance

Organs
of the Respiratory System
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchial tubes
Lungs



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Respiratory System Combining Forms

alveol/o
anthrac/o
atel/o
bronch/o
bronchi/o
bronchiol/o
alveolus; air sac

coal
incomplete
bronchus
bronchus
bronchiole



coni/o
diaphragmat/o
epiglott/o
laryng/o
lob/o
nas/o
dust
diaphragm
epiglottis
larynx
lobe
nose



orth/o
ox/o,
ox/i
pharyng/o
pleur/o
pneum/o
pneumon/o
straight, upright
oxygen
pharynx
pleura
lung, air
lung, air



pulmon/o
rhin/o
sinus/o
spir/o
trache/o
lung
nose
sinus, cavity
breathing
trachea, windpipe


Respiratory System Suffixes

capnia
ectasis
osmia
phonia
pnea
ptysis
thorax
carbon dioxide
dilated, expansion
smell
voice
breathing
spitting
chest



Cells
of body require constant gas exchange
Delivery of oxygen
Removal of carbon dioxide
Respiratory
system works in conjunction with

cardiovascular system to meet this need


Respiration
Must
be continuous to meet cells needs

Subdivided into three distinct parts:
Ventilation
Inhalation
Exhalation


Ventilation
Flow
of air between outside environment and

lungs
Inhalation
Flow of air into lungs
Brings fresh oxygen into air sacs
Exhalation
Flow of air out of lungs

Removes carbon dioxide from body


External Respiration
Exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
lungs
Gases diffuse in opposite directions
Oxygen
Leaves air sacs and enters blood stream
Carbon
dioxide
Leaves blood stream and enters air sacs


Internal Respiration
Oxygen
and carbon dioxide exchange at

cellular level
Oxygen
Leaves bloodstream and is delivered to tissue
Used immediately for metabolism
Carbon
dioxide
Waste product of metabolism

Leaves tissue and enters bloodstream


Respiratory System Organs
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchial tubes
Lungs


Respiratory System Animation
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Nasal Cavity
Air
enters through
nares
Nasal cavity divided
by nasal septum
Palate in roof of
mouth separates
nasal cavity above
from mouth below


Nasal Cavity
Cilia
Small hairs line opening to nasal cavity

Filter out large dirt particles before they can enter
lungs
Walls
of nasal cavity and nasal septum
Made of flexible cartilage

Covered with mucous membrane


Nasal Cavity
Much
of respiratory tract is coved with mucous

membrane
Mucus is thick and sticky secretion of membrane
Cleanses air by trapping dust and bacteria
Capillaries
in mucous membranes
Warm air
Humidify air


Nasal Cavity
Paranasal
sinuses
Located within facial bones

Echo chamber for sound production
Gives resonance to voice


Figure 7.1 Sagittal section of upper respiratory system illustrating the

internal anatomy of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, and trachea.
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Pharynx
Commonly
called
throat
Used by respiratory
and digestive
systems
At end of pharynx
Air enters trachea
Food and liquids
enter esophagus


Three Subdivisions of Pharynx

Nasopharynx
Upper section by
nasal cavity
Oropharynx
Middle section by
oral cavity
Laryngopharynx
Lower section by
larynx


Tonsils
Lymphatic
tissue
Removes pathogens
in air and food
Three
pairs
Adenoids
Palatine
Lingual


Eustachian or Auditory Tube

Opening
found in
nasopharynx
Other end opens into
middle ear
Tube opens with
each swallow
Equalizes air
pressure between
middle ear and
outside atmosphere



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Larynx
Commonly
called
voice box
Muscular tube
between pharynx
and trachea
Contains vocal
cords


Larynx
Walls
of larynx
Composed of
cartilage plates
Held in place by
ligaments and
muscles
Thyroid cartilage
forms the Adams
apple


Vocal Cords
Folds
of membranous tissue
Not actually cord-like in structure
Vibrate
to produce sound as air passes

through opening between folds
Called glottis


Figure 7.2 The vocal cords within the larynx, superior view from
the pharynx. (CNRI/Phototake NYC)
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Epiglottis
Flap
of cartilage
Sits above glottis
Covers larynx and
trachea during
swallowing
Food goes into
esophagus
Not into trachea



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Trachea
Commonly
called
windpipe
Carries air from
larynx to main
bronchi
Approximately four
inches in length


Figure 7.3 Structure of the trachea which extends from the larynx
above to the main bronchi below.
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Trachea
Tube
composed of:
Smooth muscle
Cartilage rings
Lined
with mucous membrane and cilia
Assists in cleansing, warming, and moisturizing air

as it travels to lungs


Bronchial Tubes
Distal
end of trachea
divides
Forms left and right

main or primary
bronchi
Each
bronchus
enters a lung
Branches to form
secondary bronchi

Figure 7.4 The bronchial tree, note how each main bronchus
enters a lung and then branches into smaller and smaller primary
bronchi, secondary bronchi, and bronchioles.
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Alveoli
Bronchi
continue to
branch to form
narrow bronchioles
Bronchiole
terminates in alveoli
Approximately 150
million alveoli in
each lung


Respiratory Membrane
Pulmonary
capillaries encase
each alveolus
Alveoli wall + capillary
wall forms respiratory
membrane
External respiration
takes place across
respiratory membrane


Figure 7.5 - A) Each bronchiole terminates in an alveolar sac, a group

of alveoli. B) Alveoli encased by network capillaries, forming the
respiratory membrane.
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Lungs
Each
is total
collection of bronchi,
bronchioles, and
alveoli
Two lungs
Right lung has 3
lobes
Left lung has 2 lobes
Spongy
because
they contain air


Lungs
Apex
Pointed
superior
portion
Base
Broad
lower area
Hilum
Entry
and exit point

Bronchi, blood
vessels, nerves

Lungs
Protected
externally
by the ribs
Protected internally
by double membrane
called pleura


Pleura
Parietal
Outer membrane that lines wall of chest cavity
Visceral
pleura
pleura
Inner membrane that adheres to surface of lungs
Pleura
is folded to form a sac around each

lung called pleural cavity
Serous fluid between two pleural layers
reduces friction when two layers rub together
during ventilation

Figure 7.6 - Position of the lungs within the thoracic cavity, anterior
view illustrating lung structure and their relationship to other
thoracic organs.
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Respiratory System Structure

Exercise
Click here to review the respiratory system anatomy with a labeling exercise.
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Pulmonary Function Tests

It
is important to measure actual volume of air

flowing in and out of lungs
Can then determine lung capacity
Respiratory
therapist
Measures lung volumes

Pulmonary function tests


Lung Volumes
Tidal volume (TV)
Volume of air moving in and out of

lungs in a single relaxed breath
Inspiratory reserve Volume of air that can be forcefully

volume (IRV)
inhaled after a normal inhale
Expiratory reserve
volume (ERV)
Volume of air that can be forcefully

exhaled after a normal exhale
Residual volume
(RV)
Volume of air remaining in lungs

after a forced exhale


Lung Capacities
Inspiratory capacity Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve
(IC)
volume
Functional residual Expiratory reserve volume +
capacity (FRC)
residual volume
Vital capacity (VC)
Inspiratory reserve volume + tidal

volume + expiratory reserve volume
Total lung capacity

(TLC)
Inspiratory reserve volume + tidal

volume + expiratory reserve volume
+ residual volume


Respiratory Muscles - Inhalation

Diaphragm
Muscle separates abdomen from thoracic cavity

Contracts and moves down into abdominal cavity
Causes decrease of pressure, negative pressure,
within chest cavity
Air then enters lungs (inhalation) to equalize
pressure


Respiratory Muscles - Inhalation

Intercostal
muscles
Located between ribs

Raise rib cage to further enlarge thoracic cavity
Increases negative pressure
Assists with forceful inhalation


Figure 7.7 A) Bell jar apparatus demonstrating how downward

movement of the diaphragm results in air flowing into the lungs. B)
Action of the intercostal muscles lifts the ribs to assist the diaphragm in
enlarging the volume of the thoracic cavity.
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Respiratory Muscles - Exhalation

Unforced
exhale results when:
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax

Thoracic cavity becomes smaller
Creates positive thoracic pressure
Air flows out of lungs to equalize pressure
For
forceful exhale
Use additional chest and neck muscles to further

decrease size of thoracic cavity
Create greater positive pressure


Respiratory Rate
One
of the vital signs (VS), along with heart

rate, temperature, and blood pressure
Respiratory rate dependent on level of CO 2 in
blood
When CO2 level is high, we breathe more
rapidly to expel excess
If CO2 levels drop, respiratory rate will also
drop until CO2 builds up in bloodstream


Respiratory Rates by Age Group

Age
Respirations per Minute
Newborn
1-year-old
16-year-old
Adult

3060
1830
1620
1220

Respiratory Rate Assessment

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Word Building with bronch/o

gram
bronchogram
record of bronchus
itis
bronchitis
inflammation of bronchus
plasty
bronchoplasty
surgical repair of bronchus
genic
bronchogenic
produced by bronchus
scope
bronchoscope
instrument to view bronchus
spasm
bronchospasm
involuntary muscle
contraction of bronchus
ial
bronchial
pertaining to bronchus


Word Building with bronchi/o and

diaphragmat/o
ectasis
bronchiectasis
dilated bronchus
ic
diaphragmatic
pertaining to diaphragm


Word Building with laryng/o

ectomy
laryngectomy
surgical removal of larynx
itis
laryngitis
inflammation of larynx
plasty
laryngoplasty
surgical repair of larynx
scope
laryngoscope
instrument to view larynx
eal
laryngeal
pertaining to larynx
plegia
laryngoplegia
paralysis of larynx


Word Building with lob/o & pleur/o

ectomy
lobectomy
surgical removal of lobe
centesis
pleurocentesis
puncture of pleura to
withdraw fluid
ectomy
pleurectomy
surgical removal of pleura
dynia
pleurodynia
pleura pain


Word Building with ox/o and ox/i

meter
oximeter
instrument to measure
oxygen
an
anoxia
condition of no oxygen
ia
hypo emia hypoxemia
blood condition of
insufficient oxygen
hypo ia
condition of insufficient
oxygen
hypoxia


Word Building with pharyng/o

and pulmon/o
itis
pharyngitis
inflammation of pharynx
eal
pharyngeal
pertaining to pharynx
nas/o itis nasopharyngitis
inflammation of nose and

pharynx
logist
pulmonologist
lung specialist
ary
pulmonary
pertaining to lungs


Word Building with rhin/o

itis
rhinitis
inflammation of nose
myc/o osis rhinomycosis
fungus in nose
plasty
rhinoplasty
surgical repair of nose
rrhagia
rhinorrhagia
rapid flow (of blood) from

nose
rrhea
rhinorrhea
nose discharge


Word Building with sinus/o & thorac/o

pan itis pansinusitis
inflammation of all sinuses
algia
thoracalgia
chest pain
ic
thoracic
pertaining to the chest
otomy
thoracotomy
incision into chest


Word Building with trache/o

endo al endotracheal
pertaining to within trachea
otomy
tracheotomy
incision into trachea
stenosis
tracheostenosis narrowing of trachea


Word Building with phonia & capnia

a
aphonia
no voice
dys
dysphonia
abnormal voice
acapnia
no carbon dioxide
hyper
hypercapnia
excessive carbon dioxide


Word Building with osmia & thorax

an
anosmia
no smell
hem/o
hemothorax
blood in the chest
py/o
pyothorax
pus in the chest
pneum/o
pneumothorax
air in the chest


Word Building with pnea

a
apnea
no breathing
brady
bradypnea
slow breathing
dys
dyspnea
difficult, labored breathing
eu
eupnea
normal breathing
hyper
hyperpnea
excessive (deep) breathing
hypo
hypopnea
insufficient (shallow) breathing
ortho
orthopnea
(sitting) straight breathing
tachy
tachypnea
rapid breathing


Respiratory System Vocabulary

asphyxia
lack of oxygen; can lead to unconsciousness

and death
aspiration
withdrawing fluid using suction; removing

phlegm from patients airway; inhaling food
or liquid into trachea
Cheyneabnormal breathing pattern with long periods

Stokes
of apnea followed by deep & rapid breathing
respiration
clubbing
abnormal widening and thickening of fingers

due to chronic oxygen deficiency



cyanosis
blue skin caused by low oxygen in blood
epistaxis
a nosebleed
hemoptysis
cough up blood or blood-stained sputum
hyperventilation breathing too fast and too deep

hypoventilation
breathing too slow and too shallow
internal
medicine
branch of medicine involving diagnosis

and treatment of diseases of internal
organs; physician is an internist



nasal cannula
two-pronged plastic device to

deliver oxygen into the nose
orthopnea
difficulty breathing made worse by

lying flat; patient breaths better
sitting up
branch of medicine involving

diagnosis and treatment of
otorhinolaryngology
diseases of the ear, nose, and
throat



patent
open or unblocked
percussion
using fingers to tap on surface to

determine condition beneath surface
phlegm
thick mucus secreted by respiratory tract
pleural rub
grating sound made when layers of pleura

rub together during respiration
branch of medicine involving diagnosis

pulmonology and treatment of diseases of respiratory
system; physician is a pulmonologist



rales
abnormal crackling sound during inspiration;

indicates fluid or mucus in airway
rhonchi
musical sound during expiration; caused by

bronchial tube spasms
respiratory allied health specialty; assists with

therapy
respiratory and cardiopulmonary disorders
shortness
of breath
(SOB)
indicates that a patient is having difficulty

breathing; also called dyspnea


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sputum
phlegm coughed up from respiratory tract
stridor
harsh, high-pitched breath sound; indicates

obstruction in the airway
thoracic
surgery
branch of medicine involving diagnosis and

treatment of diseases of respiratory system
using surgical means


Upper Respiratory System Pathology

croup
acute respiratory condition in children;

characterized by barking type of cough
diphtheria
bacterial infection characterized by formation

of thick membranous film across throat; high
mortality rate
pertussis
bacterial infection of upper respiratory

system; characterized by whooping cough


Bronchial Tube Pathology

asthma
difficulty breathing caused by

bronchospasms, dyspnea, coughing,
and wheezing
enlarged bronchi due to destruction of

bronchiectasis
bronchial wall; result of infections
bronchogenic
carcinoma
cancerous tumor originating in bronchi


Asthma Video
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Figure 7.8 Color enhanced X-ray of large malignant tumor in right

lower lung. (ISM/Phototake NYC)
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Lung Pathology
adult respiratory
distress
syndrome
(ARDS)
acute respiratory failure; characterized

by tachypnea, dyspnea, cyanosis, and
hypoxemia
anthracosis
type of pneumoconiosis; coal dust

collecting in lungs; also called black
lung or miners lung
asbestosis
type of pneumoconiosis; asbestos

fibers collecting in lungs


Lung Pathology
atelectasis
condition in which alveoli in a portion of

lung collapses; prevents gas exchange
in lung
chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease (COPD)
progressive, chronic, and usually

irreversible group of conditions; like
emphysema; lungs have decreased
capacity to function
cystic fibrosis
(CF)
genetic condition; produces very thick

mucus that causes severe congestion
in lungs


COPD Video
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Cystic Fibrosis Video
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Lung Pathology
emphysema
chronic lung condition characterized

by destruction of alveolar walls
histoplasmosis
fungal infection of the lungs
most common in premature infants;

infant respiratory
characterized by tachypnea;
distress syndrome
previously called hyaline membrane
(IRDS)
disease
influenza
viral infection of respiratory system


Lung Pathology
Legionnaires
disease
severe bacterial infection causing

pneumonia, liver, and kidney
damage
Mycoplasma
pneumonia
less severe but longer lasting form of

bacterial pneumonia; also called
walking pneumonia
pneumoconiosis
accumulation of foreign particles,

such as coal dust, in the lungs


Lung Pathology
Pneumocystis
pneumonia caused by a fungus; an
carinii pneumonia opportunistic infection seen in AIDS
(PCP)
patients
pneumonia
inflammatory condition of lungs;

results in alveoli filling with fluid
excessive amount of tissue fluid

pulmonary edema
accumulating in the lung tissues
pulmonary
embolism
floating blood clot obstructs

pulmonary artery; causes infarct of
lung tissue


Lung Pathology
pulmonary
fibrosis
formation of fibrous scar tissue in lung;

reduced ability to expand lungs
severe acute
respiratory
syndrome
(SARS)
acute viral respiratory infection; begins

like flu but quickly progresses; very
high mortality rate
silicosis
type of pneumoconiosis; accumulation

of silica dust in lungs


Lung Pathology
sleep apnea
breathing stops repeatedly during

sleep; causes drop in oxygen levels
sudden infant
unexpected and unexplained death of
death syndrome apparently well infant; stops breathing
(SIDS)
for unknown reasons
tuberculosis
(TB)
bacterial lung infection; results in

inflammation and calcification of lungs


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Pleural Cavity Pathology

empyema
accumulation of pus in pleural space;

also called pyothorax
pleural effusion
accumulation of fluid in pleural cavity;

prevents lungs from fully expanding
pleurisy
inflammation of pleura; characterized by

sharp pain with each breath
pneumothorax
collection of air in pleural cavity; may

result in collapsed lung


Figure 7.9 Pneumothorax. Figure illustrates how puncture of

thoracic wall and tearing of pleural membrane allows air into lung
and results in collapsed lung.
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arterial blood
gases (ABGs)
blood test of oxygen and carbon dioxide

levels in the blood
sputum culture cultures sputum for bacterial growth, if

& sensitivity
present, then determines best antibiotic
(C&S)
to use
sputum
cytology
examining sputum for malignant cells


Diagnostic Imaging
bronchography
X-ray of lung after inhaling radiopaque

substance
chest X-ray
X-ray of the organs of the thoracic cavity
pulmonary
angiography
X-ray of lungs after injecting dye into

blood vessel
ventilationperfusion scan
nuclear medicine test; radioactive air is

inhaled for ventilation portion;
radioactive dye is injected for perfusion
portion; looks for pulmonary emboli


bronchoscopy visual examination of bronchial tubes
(Bronch)
using a bronchoscope
laryngoscopy
visual examination of larynx using a

laryngoscope


Figure 7.10 Bronchoscopy. Figure illustrates physician using a

bronchoscope to inspect the patients bronchial tubes.
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Pulmonary Function Tests

oximetry
measures oxygen level in blood; uses

oximeter on patients finger tip
pulmonary
function test
(PFT)
group of tests to measure air flow in and

out of lungs, lung volumes, and gas
exchange
spirometry
measures lung capacity using a

spirometer


Oximetry Video
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Spirometry Video
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polysomnography
monitoring patient sleeping to identify

sleep apnea
sweat test
test for cystic fibrosis; this disease

causes large amount of salt in sweat
tuberculin skin
tests (TB test)
introducing purified protein derivative

(PPD) under the skin; determines if
person has been exposed to TB


Respiratory Therapy
aerosol therapy
medication suspended in a mist and

inhaled; delivered by a nebulizer or
metered dose inhaler (single puff dose)
endotracheal
intubation
placing a tube through the mouth and

into the trachea to keep airway open
intermittent
positive
pressure
breathing (IPPB)
method for assisting patients in

breathing with a machine that produces
an increase in positive thoracic
pressure


Nebulizer Video
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Metered Dose Inhaler Video
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Endotrachael Intubation Video
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Figure 7.11 Endotracheal intubation. First, a lighted scope is used

to identify the trachea from the esophagus. Next, the tube is
placed through the pharynx and into the trachea. Finally, the
scope is removed, leaving the tube in place.
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Respiratory Therapy
postural
drainage
drainage of bronchial secretions by

placing patient in positions using gravity
to promote drainage; cystic fibrosis
treatment
supplement
oxygen therapy
providing additional oxygen

concentration to improve oxygen levels
in bloodstream
ventilator
machine that provides artificial

ventilation for a patient unable to
breathe alone


Nasal Cannula Video
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Surgical Procedures
thoracentesis
surgical puncture of chest wall to remove

fluids; also called thoracocentesis
thoracostomy
insertion of tube (a chest tube) into chest

to drain off fluid or air
tracheostomy
emergency procedure to create an

opening directly into trachea so person
can breathe easier; also called
tracheotomy


Figure 7.12 Patient with tracheostomy tube in place receiving oxygen

through mask placed over the tracheostomy opening and attached to
a ventilator. (Ansell Horn/Phototake NYC)
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Figure 7.13 Thoracentesis. The needle is inserted between the ribs

to withdraw fluid from the pleural sac at the base of the left lung.
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Additional Procedures
cardiopulmonary
resuscitation
(CPR)
emergency treatment given to

persons when respiration and heart
stop
technique for removing foreign body

Heimlich maneuver
obstructing trachea or pharynx


Respiratory System Pharmacology

antibiotic
kills bacteria
Amoxil, Cipro
antihistamine
blocks histamine
released during
allergy attack
Allegra, Claritan,
Benadryl
antitussive
relieves urge to
cough
Hycodan, Vicks
Formula 44



relaxes
bronchodilator bronchospasms;
treats asthma
Proventil,
Ventolin,
Theo-Dur
Flonase,
reduces inflammation
corticosteroids
Nasonex,
of respiratory tract
Azmacort
decongestant
reduces congestion Afrin, Drixoral,

in respiratory system Sudafed



expectorant
improves ability to
cough up mucus
mucolytic
liquefies mucus so it
Mucomyst
is easier to cough up

Robitussin,
Mucinex

Respiratory System Abbreviations

ABGs
arterial blood gases
ARDS
adult respiratory distress syndrome
Bronch
bronchoscopy
CO2
carbon dioxide
COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CPR
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
C&S
culture and sensitivity



CTA
clear to auscultation
CXR
chest X-ray
DOE
dyspnea on exertion
DPT
diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus
ENT
ear, nose, and throat
ERV
expiratory reserve volume
FRC
functional residual capacity



HMD
hyaline membrane disease
IC
inspiratory capacity
IPPB
intermittent positive pressure breathing
IRDS
infant respiratory distress syndrome
IRV
inspiratory reserve volume
LLL
left lower lung
LUL
left upper lung



MDI
metered dose inhaler
O2
oxygen
PCP
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
PFT
pulmonary function test
PPD
purified protein derivative
respiration
RA
room air



RDS
respiratory distress syndrome
RLL
right lower lung
RML
right middle lobe
RRT
registered respiratory therapist
RV
residual volume
RUL
right upper lung
SARS
severe acute respiratory syndrome



SIDS
sudden infant death syndrome
SOB
shortness of breath
TB
tuberculosis
TLC
total lung capacity
TPR
temperature, pulse, respiration
TV
tidal volume
URI
upper respiratory infection
VC
vital capacity


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 8
Digestive System


Slide 16
Slide 58
Slide 79
Slide 84
Slide 109
Slide 113
Slide 114

Digestive System Exercise
Orthodontics Video
GERD Video
Sigmoidoscopy Video
Nasogastric Intubation Animation
Dieticians Video


Digestive System at a Glance

Function
of the Digestive System
Mechanical and chemical digestion of food

Absorption of nutrient molecules
Elimination of solid wastes



Organs
of the Gastrointestinal tract
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Colon



Accessory
Organs
Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder
Salivary glands



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Digestive System Combining Forms

an/o
append/o
appendic/o
bar/o
bucc/o
cec/o
chol/e
anus
appendix
appendix
weight
cheek
cecum
bile, gall



cholangi/o
cholecyst/o
choledoch/o
col/o
colon/o
dent/o
duoden/o
bile duct
gallbladder
common bile duct
colon
colon
tooth
duodenum



enter/o
esophag/o
gastr/o
gingiv/o
gloss/o
hepat/o
ile/o
small intestine
esophagus
stomach
gums
tongue
liver
ileum



jejun/o
labi/o
lapar/o
lingu/o
lith/o
odont/o
or/o
jejunum
lip
abdomen
tongue
stone
tooth
mouth



palat/o
pancreat/o
pharyng/o
proct/o
pylor/o
rect/o
sialaden/o
sigmoid/o
palate
pancreas
throat, pharynx
anus and rectum
pylorus
rectum
salivary gland
sigmoid colon


Digestive System Suffixes

emesis
lithiasis
orexia
pepsia
phagia
prandial
tripsy
vomit
stone
appetite
digestion
eat, swallow
pertaining to a meal
surgical crushing



Also
called:
Gastrointestinal system (GI)

Gut
Alimentary canal
Approximately
30 feet of continuous muscular

tube between mouth and anus



Organs
of the continuous gut tube in order:
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Colon (including rectum and anus)



Accessory
organs are connected to gut tube
by ducts
Include:
Salivary glands
Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder


Click here to view an animation of the digestive system.

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Three
main functions of Digestive system
Digesting food
Absorbing nutrients
Eliminating waste


Digesting Food
Physical
and chemical breakdown of large

food particles
Produces simple nutrient molecules
Glucose
Triglycerides
Amino acids


Absorbing Nutrients
Simple
molecules are absorbed from intestine

Circulated through body by cardiovascular
system
Used for growth and repair of cells, tissues,
and organs


Eliminating Waste
Some
ingested food cannot be digested or

absorbed
Expelled from body as solid waste
Feces


Oral Cavity
Roof
is palate
Hard bony anterior

Soft flexible
posterior
Hanging
down from
soft palate is uvula
Speech production
Location of gag
reflex


Oral Cavity
Cheeks
are lateral
walls
Lips are anterior
opening
Entire cavity lined
with mucous
membrane


Figure 8.1 Anatomy of the oral cavity.

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Oral Cavity
Digestion
begins when food enters mouth
Mechanically broken up by chewing
Tongue
moves food within mouth

Mixes with saliva
Digestive enzymes
Lubricates
Taste
buds on tongue surface
Detect bitter, sweet, salty, sour flavors


Teeth
Cutting
teeth
Bite
Tear
Cut
Incisors
Cuspids
(canines)


Teeth
Grinding
teeth
Bicuspids
(premolars)
Molars
Third molar is
wisdom tooth


Figure 8.3A The name and shape of the adult teeth.

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Figure 8.3B Color enhanced X-ray of teeth showing four wisdom teeth that have not
erupted. (Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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Tooth Structure
Gums
Mucous
membrane
+ connective tissue
Seals off teeth in
socket
Tooth
is divided into:
Crown above gum

Root below gum


Tooth Structure
Enamel
Outer
covering
In crown only
Hardest substance
Dentin
Under
enamel
In crown and root
Bulk of tooth


Tooth Structure
Pulp
cavity
In crown and root

canal
Blood vessels, nerves
Cementum
and
periodontal
ligaments
Anchors root in
jawbone


Figure 8.4 Internal structures of the crown and root.

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Humans Have 2 Sets of Teeth

Deciduous
teeth
First set, baby teeth

20 teeth erupt between ages 6 and 28 months
Permanent
teeth
Second set, adult teeth

About 6 years of age, baby teeth fall out
Replaced by 32 permanent teeth
Process continues until 18-20 years of age


Pharynx
Swallowed
food
enters oropharynx
Proceeds down
pharynx into
laryngopharynx
Epiglottis
Covers larynx and
trachea
Shunts food away
from lungs & into
esophagus


Figure 8.2 Structures of the oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus.

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Esophagus
10-inch
long muscular tube

Food enters from pharynx
Delivered to stomach
Propelled along by wavelike muscular
movements
Called peristalsis
Pushes food through entire gut tube


The Stomach
J-shaped
muscular
organ
Collects & churns
food
Mixes it with
hydrochloric acid
(HCl)
Forms
chyme
Watery mix of food

and digestive juices


The Stomach
Three
regions
Fundus upper
Body main
Antrum lower
Rugae
are folds in
stomach lining
Stretch out to allow

stomach to expand
with food


Sphincters
Muscular
valves
Control flow of food
Lower
esophageal
(cardiac) sphincter
Keeps food from

backing up into
esophagus
Pyloric
sphincter
Allows highly acidic

chyme to enter small
intestine


Figure 8.5 The regions and internal structures of the stomach.

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Small Intestine
Longest
portion of
alimentary canal
Averages 20 feet
Between pyloric
sphincter and colon
Site
of:
Completion of
digestion
Majority of absorption


Three Sections of Small Intestine

Duodenum
First section about 10-12 inches long

Starts at pyloric sphincter
Jejunum
Second section about 8 feet long
Ileum
Third section about 12 feet long

Connects to colon at ileocecal valve


Figure 8.6 The small intestine duodenum, jejunum, ileum begins at the pyloric sphincter and ends
at the colon.
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Colon
5
feet long
Extends from ileocecal valve to anus
Fluid that remains after digestion and
absorption enters colon
Most is water and is reabsorbed into body
Solid waste left over is feces
Evacuated in bowel movements


Regions of the Colon

Cecum
Appendix
Ascending
colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon


Rectum and Anus

Rectum
is area for
storage of feces
Leads to anus
External
opening of
alimentary canal
Feces
are evacuated
Called
defecation


Figure 8.7 The regions of the colon.

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Accessory Organs
Generally
function by producing substances

necessary for chemical breakdown of food
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas


Salivary Glands
Produce
saliva
Allows food to be
swallowed without
choking
Saliva + food =
bolus
Contains amylase
Begins
digestion of
carbohydrates


Salivary Glands
Three
pairs
Parotid glands
Sublingual glands
Submandibular
glands


Figure 8.8 The salivary glands, parotid, sublingual, and submandibular.

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Liver
Located
in right upper quadrant of abdomen

Processes nutrients
Detoxifies harmful substances
Produces bile
Emulsification
Breaks up large fat globules into smaller droplets


Figure 8.9 The accessory organs of the digestive system: the liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas.
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Gallbladder
Lies
under liver
Stores bile produced
by liver
Hepatic
duct
Cystic duct
Common
bile duct
carries bile to
duodenum


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Pancreas
Digestive
juices
include:
Buffers neutralize
acidic chyme
Enzymes digest
carbohydrates, lipids,
and proteins


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Digestive System Exercise
Click here to review digestive system anatomy in a labeling activity.

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Word Building with an/o & bucc/o

al
anal
pertaining to anus
al
buccal
pertaining to cheek
labi/o al labiobuccal

pertaining to lips and cheeks

Word Building with append/o &

appendic/o
ectomy
appendectomy surgical removal of appendix
itis
appendicitis

inflammation of appendix

Word Building with cholecyst/o &

dent/o
ectomy
cholecystectomy
removal of gallbladder
gram
cholecystogram
X-ray record of gallbladder
ic
cholecystic
pertaining to gallbladder
algia
cholecystalgia
gallbladder pain
al
dental
pertaining to teeth
algia
dentalgia
tooth pain


Word Building with col/o & colon/o

ectomy
colectomy
removal of colon
ostomy
colostomy
new opening into colon
rect/o al colorectal
pertaining to colon & rectum
scope
colonoscope
instrument to view colon
ic
colonic
pertaining to colon


Word Building with duoden/o, enter/o,

& esophag/o
al
duodenal
pertaining to duodenum
ic
enteric
pertaining to intestine
itis
enteritis
inflammation of intestine
eal
esophageal
pertaining to esophagus
ectasis
esophagectasis dilation of esophagus


Word Building with gastr/o

algia
gastralgia
stomach pain
ic
gastric
pertaining to stomach
enter/o
itis
gastroenteritis
inflammation of stomach
enter/o
ologist
gastroenterologist stomach specialist
malacia
gastromalacia

stomach softening

Word Building with gastr/o

nas/o ic nasogastric
pertaining to nose & stomach
ostomy
gastrostomy
new opening into stomach
scope
gastroscope
instrument to view stomach
itis
gastritis
inflammation of stomach
ectomy
gastrectomy
surgical removal of stomach


Word Building with gingiv/o & gloss/o

al
gingival
pertaining to gums
itis
gingivitis
gum inflammation
al
glossal
pertaining to tongue
hypo al
hypoglossal
pertaining to under tongue


Word Building with hepat/o & ile/o

itis
hepatitis
inflammation of liver
oma
hepatoma
liver tumor
ic
hepatic
pertaining to liver
al
ileal
pertaining to ileum
ostomy
ileostomy
new opening into ileum


Word Building with jejun/o, lapar/o, &

lingu/o
al
jejunal
pertaining to jejunum
otomy
laparotomy
incision into abdomen
scope
laparoscope
instrument to view inside

colon
sub al
sublingual
pertaining to under the tongue


Word Building with odont/o, or/o, &

palat/o
orth/o ic
orthodontic
pertaining to straight teeth
al
oral
pertaining to mouth
plasty
palatoplasty
surgical repair of palate


Word Building with pancreat/o &

pharyng/o
itis
pancreatitis
inflammation of pancreas
ic
pancreatic
pertaining to pancreas
eal
pharyngeal
pertaining to pharynx
plegia
pharyngoplegia
pharynx paralysis
plasty
pharyngoplasty
surgical repair of pharynx


Word Building with proct/o & pylor/o

ptosis
proctoptosis drooping rectum & anus
logist
proctologist
rectum & anus specialist
pexy
proctopexy
surgical fixation of rectum & anus
ic
pyloric
pertaining to pylorus


Word Building with rect/o, sialaden/o,

& sigmoid/o
al
rectal
pertaining to rectum
itis
sialadenitis
inflammation of salivary
glands
scope

sigmoidoscope
sigmoid colon
al
sigmoidal

pertaining to sigmoid colon

Word Building with emesis, orexia,

& prandial
hemat/o
hematemesis vomit blood
hyper
hyperemesis
excessive vomiting
an
anorexia
lack of appetite
dys
dysorexia
abnormal appetite
post
postprandial
pertaining to after a meal


Word Building with pepsia & phagia

brady
bradypepsia
slow digestion
dys
dyspepsia
painful digestion
aphagia
lack of eating
dys
dysphagia
abnormal eating
poly
polyphagia
too much eating


Digestive System Vocabulary

anorexia
loss of appetite with other conditions;

different from anorexia nervosa
ascites
collection of fluid in peritoneal cavity
bowel
inability to control defecation
incontinence
bridge
dental appliance attached to adjacent

teeth to replace missing teeth
cachexia
loss of weight and wasting occurring

during chronic disease



constipation
difficult or infrequent defecation
crown
artificial tooth to replace original crown
decay of tooth due to bacterial infection;

dental caries
tooth cavity
dentistry
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of

conditions involving teeth, jaw, and mouth
denture
partial or complete set of artificial teeth
diarrhea
frequent, watery bowel movements



emesis
vomiting
gastroenterology
diagnosis and treatment of diseases of

the digestive system
hematochezia
passing bright red blood in stools
implant
prosthetic device in jaw to anchor a

tooth
internal medicine

internal organs



jaundice
yellow cast to skin; caused by deposit of

bile pigment; often caused by liver disease
melena
passage of dark tarry stool, due to

digested blood
nausea
urge to vomit
obesity
weight above healthy levels
orthodontics correction of problems of tooth alignment


Orthodontics Video
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periodontics
treating conditions of the gums and area

around teeth
polyp
tumor with a pedicle (stem) attachment;

found on mucous membranes
proctology

anus and rectum
pyrosis
stomach acid splashing into esophagus;

heartburn
regurgitation backflow of stomach contents into mouth


Oral Cavity Pathology

aphthous ulcers
ulcers in the mouth; commonly called

canker sores
cleft lip
congenital anomaly where upper lip

and jaw fail to fuse in the midline,
leaving a gap
cleft palate
congenital anomaly where hard

palate fails to fuse in the midline,
leaving an opening into nasal cavity


Oral Cavity Pathology

herpes labialis
herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)

infection; fever blisters or cold sores
periodontal
disease
disease of supporting structures

around the teeth; especially the
gums; most common cause of tooth
loss


Esophageal Pathology
esophageal
varices
varicose veins in the esophagus;

hemorrhaging occurs if rupture
gastroesophageal acid from stomach flows backward

reflux disease
up into esophagus causing
(GERD)
inflammation and pain


GERD Video
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Stomach Pathology
gastric carcinoma
malignant tumor in stomach
hiatal hernia
protrusion of stomach through

diaphragm into thoracic cavity; also
called diaphragmatocele
peptic ulcer
disease (PUD)
ulcer in the lower portion of

esophagus, stomach, and/or
duodenum; caused by high acid of
stomach juices; may be a result of
Helicobacter pylori infection


Figure 8.10 A hiatal hernia or diaphragmatocele.

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Figure 8.11A The location and appearance of a peptic ulcer in both

the stomach and the duodenum.
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Figure 8.11B Photomicrograph of a gastric ulcer.

(Dr. E. Walker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Small Intestine & Colon Pathology

anal fistula
abnormal passageway from surface

directly into rectum; around anal opening
colorectal
carcinoma
malignant tumor in the colon or rectum
Crohns
disease
chronic inflammatory bowel disease,

primarily in ileum and/or colon; results in
scarring; also called regional ileitis



diverticulitis
inflammation of a diverticulum, an
outpouching off the colon; results from
food being trapped inside
diverticulosis
condition of having diverticula, may lead

to diverticulitis
dysentery
diarrhea with mucus and blood, severe

abdominal pain, and fever; caused by
contaminated food or water


Figure 8.12 Diverticulosis.

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hemorrhoids varicose veins in the anal region
ileus
severe abdominal pain, inability to

defecate, abdominal distension; caused by
intestinal blockage
inguinal
hernia
protrusion of a loop of bowel through

abdominal muscle and into groin region;
may become incarcerated or strangulated
if muscle pinches the loop of bowel


Figure 8.13 An inguinal hernia.

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intussusception
one part of intestine slips or

telescopes into another section
irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS)
disturbance in function of intestine

for unknown reason; causes
abdominal cramping and alternating
diarrhea and constipation; also
called functional bowel syndrome


Figure 8.14 Intussusception.

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polyposis
having polyps growing on the

mucous membrane of the colon;
may become cancerous
ulcerative colitis
chronic inflammatory condition with

numerous small ulcers on the lining
of the colon; also called inflammatory
bowel disease (IBD)
volvulus
bowel twists upon itself causing an

obstruction


Figure 8.15 Photograph showing a polyp in the colon.

(ISM/Phototake NYC)
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Figure 8.16 Volvulus.

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Accessory Organ Pathology

cholecystitis
inflammation of gallbladder; commonly

caused by gallstones
cholelithiasis
presence of gallstones; may or may not

cause symptoms
cirrhosis
chronic liver disease due to liver failure
hepatitis
inflammation of liver; usually due to a

viral infection


Figure 8.17A Common sites for cholelithiasis.

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Figure 8.17B A gallbladder specimen with multiple gallstones.

(Martin Rotker/Phototake NYC)
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alanine
normal enzyme in the bloodstream;
transaminase
increased levels indicate liver disease
(ALT)
aspartate
normal enzyme in the bloodstream;
transaminase
increased levels indicate liver disease
(AST)
fecal occult
examines feces for microscopic amounts
blood (FOBT) of blood; also called hemoccult



ova and
parasites
(O&P)
examination of feces for presence of

parasites or their eggs
serum
bilirubin
determines amount of bilirubin in

bloodstream; indicates liver disease
stool culture
culture of feces to look for presence of

pathogenic bacteria


Diagnostic Imaging
bite-wing X-ray
X-ray of teeth with film holder held in

the teeth
intravenous
X-ray of gallbladder and bile ducts
cholecystography after intravenous injection of dye
lower
gastrointestinal
series (lower GI)
X-ray of colon and rectum after

barium dye injected via an enema;
also called a barium enema (BE)


Figure 8.18 Color enhanced X-ray of the colon taken during a barium enema.
(CNRI/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Diagnostic Imaging
percutaneous
transhepatic
X-ray of liver and bile duct after dye is
cholangiography injected directly into liver
(PTC)
upper
gastrointestinal
series (upper
GI)
X-ray of esophagus, stomach, and

duodenum after swallowing barium;
also called barium swallow


esophagogastrousing a scope to view inside the
duodenoscopy
esophagus, stomach, and duodenum
(EGD)
endoscopic
retrograde
cholangiopancreatography
(ERCP)
visual examine inside hepatic duct,

common bile duct, and pancreatic
duct; scope is inserted through anus
and worked backwards through gut


colonoscopy
visual examination inside of colon and

rectum using a colonoscope
gastroscopy
visual examination inside of stomach

using a gastroscope
laparoscopy
visual examination inside of abdominal

cavity using a laparoscope
visual examination inside of sigmoid

sigmoidoscopy
colon using a sigmoidoscope


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paracentesis
insertion of needle into abdominal cavity

to withdraw fluid


Dental Procedures
extraction
removing teeth
root canal
drilling out of pulp cavity of a tooth; used to

save a tooth that is badly infected


Medical Procedures
gavage
placing liquid nourishment directly into

stomach via a nasogastric tube
lavage
washing out stomach using a

nasogastric tube
nasogastric
intubation
(NG tube)
flexible catheter inserted into nose and

down esophagus into the stomach
total parenteral providing 100% of patient nutrition; used

nutrition (TPN) when patient is unable to eat


Nasogastric Intubation Animation
Click here to view an animation on nasogastric intubation.

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Dieticians Video
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Surgical Procedures
anastomosis
surgical creation of a connection

between two organs; like joining
together two sections of colon
bariatric surgery
surgical procedures to treat morbid

obesity; like stomach stapling
surgical crushing of a gallstone in

choledocholithotripsy
the common bile duct


Surgical Procedures
colostomy
surgical creation of opening into some

portion of colon through abdominal wall
diverticulectomy surgical removal of diverticula

exploratory
laparotomy
surgical procedure to examine the

abdominal organs


Figure 8.19A The colon illustrating various ostomy sites.

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Figure 8.19B Colostomy in the descending colon.

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Surgical Procedures
fistulectomy
removal of a fistula
gastric stapling
procedure to close off large section

of stomach with rows of staples;
results in much smaller stomach
hemorrhoidectomy surgical removal of hemorrhoids


Surgical Procedures
hernioplasty
surgical repair of a hernia
laparoscopic
cholecystectomy
surgical removal of gallbladder

through a laparoscopic incision
liver transplant
implantation of a donor liver


Digestive System Pharmacology

anorexiant
suppresses appetite to
treat obesity
Adipost,
Obezine
antacid
neutralizes stomach acid
Tums, Maalox,
Mylanta
antidiarrheal
used to control diarrhea
Imodium,
Lomotil
antiemetic
treats nausea and

vomiting
Compazine,
Phenergan


Digestive System Pharmacology

emetic
induces vomiting
Ipecac syrup
H2-receptor
antagonist
blocks the production

of stomach acid
Zantac, Pepcid,
Tagament
laxative
stimulates a bowel
movement
Senokot,
Metamucil
proton pump
inhibitor
blocks stomachs
ability to secrete acid
Nexium,
Prilosec


Digestive System Abbreviations

ac
before meals
ALT
alanine transaminase
AST
aspartate transaminase
Ba
barium
BE
barium enema
BM
bowel movement
BS
bowel sounds



CBD
common bile duct
EGD
esophagogastroduodenoscopy
ERCP
endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography
FOBT
fecal occult blood test
GB
gallbladder
GERD
gastroesophageal reflux disease
GI
gastrointestinal



HAV
hepatitis A virus
HBV
hepatitis B virus
HCl
hydrochloric acid
HCV
hepatitis C virus
HDV
hepatitis D virus
HEV
hepatitis E virus
HSV-1
herpes simplex virus type 1



IBD
inflammatory bowel disease
IBS
irritable bowel syndrome
IVC
intravenous cholangiography
NG
nasogastric
NPO
nothing by mouth
n&v
nausea and vomiting
O&P
ova and parasites



pc
after meals
PO
by mouth
pp
postprandial
PTC
percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography
PUD
peptic ulcer disease
TPN
total parenteral nutrition
UGI
upper gastrointestinal series


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 9
Urinary System


Urinary System at a Glance

Functions
of Urinary System
Maintain stable internal environment

Remove waste products
Adjust water and electrolyte levels
Maintain correct pH


Urinary System at a Glance

Organs
of Urinary System
Two kidneys
Two ureters
One urinary bladder
One urethra



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Urinary System Combining Forms

azot/o
bacteri/o
cyst/o
glomerul/o
glycos/o
keton/o
nitrogenous waste
bacteria
bladder
glomerulus
sugar, glucose
ketones



lith/o
meat/o
nephr/o
noct/i
olig/o
pyel/o
stone
meatus
kidney
night
scanty
renal pelvis



ren/o
ur/o
ureter/o
urethr/o
urin/o
vesic/o
kidney
urine
ureter
urethra
urine
bladder


Urinary System Suffixes

-lith
-lithiasis
-ptosis
-tripsy
-uria
stone
condition of stones
drooping
surgical crushing
condition of the urine



Also
called genitourinary system

Consists of
Two kidneys
Two ureters
One urinary bladder
One urethra


Function
Main
function is to filter and remove waste

products from blood
Metabolic processes produce waste
Blood becomes toxic if waste builds up
Waste materials are called urine
Urine is then removed from body


Homeostasis
Responsible
for homeostasis
Maintain proper balance of water and chemicals in

body
Regulate
levels of electrolytes
Sodium
Potassium
Chloride
Bicarbonate
Maintain
pH


Waste Removal
Waste
is removed through system of blood

vessels and tubules
Called
the nephron
More than 1 million make up each kidney
Produce urine
Urine
drains from kidney through ureters to

bladder, into urethra, and then out of body


Kidneys
Located
behind
peritoneum
Retroperitoneal
Concave
area on
edge of center called
hilum
Renal artery enters
Renal vein leaves
Ureter leaves


Figure 9.1 Kidney structure. Longitudinal section showing the renal

artery entering and the renal vein and ureter exiting at the hilum of
the kidney.
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Internal Structure of Kidneys

Cortex
Outer portion
Medulla
Inner portion
Pyramids
Triangular shaped
structures in medulla
Papilla
Tip of each renal

pyramid


Figure 9.2 Longitudinal section of a kidney illustrating the internal

structures.
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Internal Structures of the Kidneys

Calyx
Small open area that

receives urine from
each papilla
Renal
pelvis
Large open area that

receives urine from
each calyx
Empties into ureter


Figure 9.2 Longitudinal section of a kidney illustrating the internal

structures.
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Nephron
Functional
unit of kidney
Microscopic
More than 1 million nephrons in each kidney
Consists of
Renal corpuscle
Renal tubules


Renal Corpuscle
Two
parts:
Glomerulus
Glomerular or
Bowmans capsule
Blood
flows through
glomerulus
Substances filtered
from blood and enter
glomerular capsule

Renal Tubules
Four
sections:
Proximal
convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted
tubule
Collecting tubule
Filtrate
flows through
renal tubules to
complete urine
production process


Figure 9.3 The structure of a nephron.

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3 Stages of Urine Production

Urine
is produced as filtrate moves through

renal tubules
Three stages:
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion


Filtration
Between
glomerulus
and Bowmans
capsule
Filtrate is produced
Water
Glucose
Amino acids
Wastes
Filtrate
tubules
enters renal


Reabsorption
As
filtrate moves
through renal tubules
Water & desirable
molecules are
reabsorbed
Returned to blood in
peritubular capillaries
Waste & undesirable
molecules remain in
renal tubules


Secretion
As
filtrate moves
through renal tubules
Additional waste
products removed
from blood in
peritubular capillaries
Added to filtrate in
renal tubules


Figure 9.7 The three stages of urine production: filtration,

reabsorption, and secretion.
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Ureters
Urine
drains from
renal pelvis into
ureters
Extend from renal
pelvis to urinary
bladder
Lined with mucous
membranes


Figure 9.4 The ureters extend from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder.
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Urinary Bladder
Elastic
muscular sac
Smooth muscle
tissue
Lined with mucous
membrane
Folded into rugae
Lies
in base of pelvis
Behind pubic
symphysis


Figure 9.5 The structure of the urinary bladder.

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Urinary Bladder
Receives
urine from ureters

Stores urine
Holds 250 mL of urine
Excretes
through urethra
Involuntary muscle action causes:
Bladder to contract
Internal sphincter to relax
Voluntary
muscles control external sphincter


Urethra
Tubular
canal lined with mucous membrane
1 inches long in females

8 inches long in males
Carries
urine from bladder to outside of body

External opening is called urinary meatus
Releasing urine from body is called
Micturition
Voiding
Urination


Figure 9.6A The male urethra extends from the urinary bladder in
the floor of the pelvis through the penis to the urinary meatus.
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Figure 9.6B The much shorter female urethra extends from the urinary
bladder to the floor of the pelvis and exits just in front of the vaginal opening.
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Urine
Normally
straw colored to clear

95% water
Contains:
Excess water
Excess electrolytes
Toxins
Nitrogen wastes
Normal
24-hour output 1,000 to 2,000 mL

Acidic, specific gravity varies
1:001 to 1:030



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Word Building with cyst/o

algia
cystalgia
bladder pain
ectomy
cystectomy
excision of bladder
gram
cystogram
record of bladder
ic
cystic
pertaining to bladder
itis
cystitis
bladder inflammation
lith
cystolith
bladder stone


Word Building with cyst/o

ostomy
cystostomy
new opening in bladder
otomy
cystotomy
incision into bladder
pexy
cystopexy
surgical fixation of bladder
plasty
cystoplasty
surgical repair of bladder
rrhagia
cystorrhagia
rapid bleeding from bladder
cystoscope
instrument to examine
inside bladder
scope


Word Building with lith/o

tripsy
lithotripsy
surgical crushing of stone
otomy
lithotomy
incision to remove stone


Word Building with nephr/o

ectomy
nephrectomy
removal of kidney
gram
nephrogram
record of kidney
itis
nephritis
inflammation of kidney
lith
nephrolith
kidney stone
logist
nephrologist
kidney specialist
malacia
nephromalacia kidney softening



megaly
nephromegaly
kidney enlargement
oma
nephroma
kidney tumor
osis
nephrosis
abnormal condition of the

kidney
ptosis
nephroptosis
drooping kidney
ostomy
nephrostomy
new opening into kidney



otomy
nephrotomy
incision into kidney
pathy
nephropathy
kidney disease
pexy
nephropexy
surgical fixation of kidney
lithiasis
nephrolithiasis
condition of kidney stone
sclerosis
nephrosclerosis kidney hardening


Word Building with pyel/o

gram
pyelogram
record of renal pelvis
itis
pyelitis
inflammation of renal pelvis
plasty
pyeloplasty
surgical repair of renal

pelvis


Word Building with ren/o and ur/o

al
renal
pertaining to the kidney
logist
urologist
urine specialist
emia
uremia
urine blood condition


Word Building with ureter/o

al
ureteral
pertaining to ureter
ectasis
ureterectasis
ureter dilation
lith
ureterolith
ureter stone
stenosis
ureterostenosis narrowing of ureter


Word Building with urethr/o

al
urethral
pertaining to urethra
algia
urethralgia
urethra pain
itis
urethritis
inflammation of urethra
rrhagia
urethrorrhagia
rapid bleeding from urethra
scope
urethroscope

urethra
stenosis
urethrostenosis narrowing of urethra


Word Building with urin/o

meter
urinometer
urine
ary
urinary
pertaining to urine


Word Building with uria

an
anuria
condition of no urine
bacteri/o
bacteriuria
bacteria in the urine
dys
dysuria
difficult or painful urination
glycos/o
glycosuria
sugar in the urine
hemat/o
hematuria
blood in the urine
keton/o
ketonuria
ketones in the urine


Word Building with uria

noct/i
nocturia
nighttime urination
olig/o
oliguria
scanty urination
poly
polyuria
frequent urination
protein
proteinuria
protein in the urine
py/o
pyuria
pus in the urine


Urinary System Vocabulary

anuria
complete lack of urine production and lack

of urine excretion
azotemia
nitrogenous waste in the bloodstream
calculus
stone formed within an organ from mineral

salts
catheter
flexible tube inserted into the body;

commonly through urethra into bladder
diuresis
increased formation and secretion of urine
enuresis
involuntary discharge of urine; also called

bed-wetting at night


Figure 9.8 Sectioned kidney specimen illustrating extensive renal calculi.

(Dr. E. Walker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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frequency
greater urge to urinate; no increase in total

volume of urine
hesitancy
decrease in force of urine stream, often

with difficulty initiating the flow
micturition
another term for urination
nephrology
diagnosis and treatment of diseases and

conditions of the kidney
renal colic
pain caused by a kidney stone
stricture
narrowing of a passageway in the urinary

system



uremia
accumulation of waste products in the

bloodstream
urgency
feeling the need to urinate immediately
urinary
involuntary release of urine
incontinence
urinary
retention
inability to fully empty the bladder
urology
diagnosis and treatment of diseases and

conditions of the urinary system
voiding
another term for urination


Kidney Pathology
acute tubular
necrosis
(ATN)
damage to renal tubules due to

toxins in the urine; results in oliguria
diabetic
nephropathy
damage to glomerular capillaries due

to high blood sugar of diabetes
mellitus
inflammation of the kidney; more

glomerulonephritis
permeable to protein and blood cells
hydronephrosis
distention of renal pelvis due to

accumulation of urine in the kidney


Kidney Pathology
nephrolithiasis
presence of calculi in the kidney;

solidification of salts in the urine
nephrotic
syndrome
(NS)
damage to glomerulus; protein

appears in the urine
nephroptosis
downward displacement of the

kidney; floating kidney
polycystic kidneys
formation of multiple cysts within the

kidney; destroys normal kidney tissue


Figure 9.10 A polycystic kidney on the left compared to a normal

kidney on the right.
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Kidney Pathology
pyelonephritis
inflammation of renal pelvis and

kidney; common type of kidney
disease
renal cell
carcinoma
cancerous tumor of renal tubule cells
renal failure
inability of kidneys to filter wastes;

results in uremia
Wilms tumor
malignant kidney tumor; most often

found in children


Urinary Bladder Pathology

bladder cancer
cancerous tumor arising from cells

lining bladder; symptom is hematuria
bladder neck
obstruction
(BNO)
blockage of bladder outlet; often

caused by enlarged prostate gland
cystocele
protrusion of the urinary bladder into

wall of vagina


Urinary Bladder Pathology

interstitial cystitis
inflammation and irritation of bladder
neurogenic
bladder
loss of nervous control; leads to

retention
urinary tract
infection
(UTI)
infection of any organ of urinary

system; usually from bacteria; begins
with cystitis and may ascend into
ureters and kidneys



blood urea
nitrogen
(BUN)
blood test to evaluate kidney function by

measuring level of nitrogenous waste
(urea) in the bloodstream
clean catch
specimen
(CC)
urine sample obtained after cleaning off

the urinary meatus and collecting sample
in midstream
creatinine
clearance
test of kidney function; amount of

creatinine in bloodstream is compared to
amount in the urine



urinalysis
(U/A, UA)
physical, chemical, and microscopic

examination of urine
urine culture
& sensitivity
(C&S)
test for bacterial infection; attempt to grow

bacteria on a culture medium in order to
identify it; then determine which antibiotics
it is sensitive to


Diagnostic Imaging
cystography
contrast dye is placed in bladder and then

X-ray is taken; outlines bladder
excretory
urography
(EU)
dye is injected into bloodstream; X-ray

traces the dye as it moves through organs
of the urinary system
intravenous
pyelogram
(IVP)
injecting a dye into a vein and then taking

an X-ray to outline the renal pelvis


Diagnostic Imaging
kidneys, ureters,
bladder
(KUB)
abdominal X-ray showing the

kidneys, ureters, and bladder; does
not use dye
retrograde
pyelogram
(RP)
dye is inserted through the urethra to

outline the bladder, ureters, and
renal pelvis
voiding
dye is placed in the bladder; X-ray
cystourethrography taken to visualize the urethra while
(VCUG)
patient is voiding


Figure 9.11 Color enhanced retrograde pyelogram X-ray. Radiopaque

dye outlines urinary bladder, ureters, and renal pelves. (Clinique Ste.
Catherine/CNRI/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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cystoscopy
(cysto)
visual examination of the urinary

bladder using a cystoscope


Medical Treatments
catheterization (cath)
insertion of a tube through urethra

and into the urinary bladder
extracorporeal
shockwave lithotripsy
(ESWL)
use of ultrasound waves to break

up renal calculi
hemodialysis
(HD)
use of artificial kidney machine to

filter the blood
peritoneal dialysis
removes wastes using chemically

balanced solutions placed into
peritoneal cavity


Figure 9.13 Patient undergoing hemodialysis. Patients blood

passes through hemodialysis machine for cleansing.
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Figure 9.14 Peritoneal dialysis. Chemically balanced solution is

placed into the abdominal cavity to draw impurities out of the
bloodstream. It is removed after several hours.
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Surgical Treatments
lithotripsy
crushing a stone in the bladder or

urethra
meatotomy
incision into the meatus
nephrolithotomy
incision to directly remove stones

from the kidney
renal transplant
surgical placement of a donor kidney


Figure 9.15 Figure illustrates location utilized for implantation of

donor kidney.
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Urinary System Pharmacology

antibiotic
treats bacterial
infections
prevent or reduce
antispasmodic bladder muscle
spasms
diuretics
increases volume of
urine

Cipro, Macrobid
Ditropan,
Prostigmine
Lasix, Aldactone

Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 10
Reproductive System



at a Glance
Functions
of Female Reproductive System
Produces ova
Provides location for fertilization
Provides location for development of fetus
Secretes female sex hormones
Produces milk to nourish infant



at a Glance
Organs
of Female Reproductive System
Ovaries
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Breasts



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Female Combining Forms

amni/o
cervic/o
chori/o
colp/o
culd/o
embry/o
episi/o
fet/o
amnion
neck, cervix
chorion
vagina
cul-de-sac
embryo
vulva
fetus



gynec/o
hymen/o
hyster/o
lact/o
mamm/o
mast/o
men/o
metr/o
woman, female
hymen
uterus
milk
breast
breast
menses, menstruation
uterus



nat/o
oophor/o
ov/o
ovari/o
perine/o
salping/o
uter/o
vagin/o
vulv/o
birth
ovary
egg
ovary
perineum
fallopian tubes, uterine tubes
uterus
vagina
vulva


Female Suffixes
arche
cyesis
gravida
para
partum
salpinx
tocia
beginning
state of pregnancy
pregnancy
to bear (offspring)
childbirth
fallopian tube
labor, childbirth


Figure 10.10 Photograph illustrating the development of an embryo. (Petit

Format/Nestle/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Figure 10.11 Photograph illustrating the development of a fetus. (Petit Format/Nestle/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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Word Building with amni/o & cervic/o

otomy
amniotomy
incision into amnion
tic
amniotic
pertaining to amnion
rrhea
amniorrhea
flow from amnion
ectomy
cervicectomy
surgical removal of cervix
al
cervical
pertaining to cervix
endo itis endocervicitis

inflammation inside cervix

Word Building with

chori/o, colp/o, embry/o, and episi/o
nic
chorionic
pertaining to chorion
scope
colposcope
instrument to view
inside vagina
nic
embryonic
pertaining to embryo
rrhaphy
episiorrhaphy
suture of vulva


Word Building with

fet/o, gynec/o, and hymen/o
al
fetal
pertaining to fetus
ologist
gynecologist
female specialist
ectomy
hymenectomy
surgical removal of
hymen


Word Building with

hyster/o, lact/o, and lapar/o
pexy
hysteropexy
surgical fixation of uterus
rrhexis
hysterorrhexis
rupture of uterus
ic
lactic
pertaining to milk
rrhea
lactorrhea
milk discharge
otomy
laparotomy
incision into abdomen
scope
laparoscope

abdomen


Word Building with mamm/o & mast/o

gram
mammogram
X-ray record of breast
ary
mammary
pertaining to breast
plasty
mammoplasty
surgical repair of breast
algia
mastalgia
breast pain
itis
mastitis
inflammation of breast
ectomy
mastectomy
removal of breast


Word Building with men/o

a rrhea
amenorrhea
lack of menstrual flow
dys rrhea
dysmenorrhea
painful menstrual flow
oligo rrhea
oligomenorrhea scanty menstrual flow
rrhagia
menorrhagia

rapid menstrual flow

Word Building with metr/o & nat/o

endo itis
endometritis
inflammation within uterus
peri itis
perimetritis
inflammation around uterus
rrhea
metrorrhea
flow from uterus
rrhagia
metrorrhagia
rapid flow from uterus
neo
neonate
newborn
neo
ologist
neonatologist specialist in newborn


Word Building with

oophor/o, ovari/o, and salping/o
itis
oophoritis
inflammation of ovary
an
ovarian
pertaining to ovary
cyesis
salpingocyesis
fallopian tube pregnancy
ectomy salpingectomy
removal of fallopian tube
itis
inflammation of fallopian tube
salpingitis


Word Building with uter/o and vagin/o

ine
uterine
pertaining to uterus
al
vaginal
pertaining to vagina
itis
vaginitis
inflammation of vagina


Word Building with cyesis & gravida

pseudo
pseudocyesis
false pregnancy
nulli
nulligravida
no pregnancies
primi
primigravida
first pregnancy
multi
multigravida
multiple pregnancies


Word Building with para & partum

nulli
nullipara
no births
primi
primipara
first birth
multi
multipara
multiple births
ante
antepartum
before birth
post
postpartum
after birth


Word Building with salpinx & tocia

hemato
hematosalpinx
blood in fallopian tube
pyo
pyosalpinx
pus in fallopian tube
dys
dystocia
difficult labor and childbirth



Vocabulary
atresia
congenital lack of normal body opening
barrier
contraception
prevents sperm from meeting ovum;

condom, diaphragms
colostrum
thin fluid secreted by breast after

delivery before actual milk appears
fraternal twins
develop from two different ova fertilized

by two different sperm
gynecology
(GYN)

female reproductive system



Vocabulary
hormonal
contraception
using hormones to block ovulation; no

ovum to fertilize; pills, patch, implant
identical twins
develop from the splitting of a single

fertilized ovum
infertility
unable to produce children; no pregnancy

after properly timed intercourse for one
year
intrauterine
device (IUD)
device inserted into uterus to prevent

pregnancy from establishing
meconium
first bowel movement of newborn


Figure 10.14 Shape of two different intrauterine devices (IUDs). (Jules Selmes
and Debi Treloar/Dorling Kindersley Media Library)
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Vocabulary
neonatology

the newborn
obstetrics
(OB)
diagnosis and treatment of women during

pregnancy and childbirth
premenstrual symptoms appear just prior to menstrual

syndrome
period; irritability, headache, tender
(PMS)
breasts, and anxiety
puberty
beginning of menstruation and

reproductive years


Ovary Pathology
ovarian carcinoma malignant tumor of the ovaries
ovarian cyst
cysts developing in the ovaries; may

rupture causing pain and bleeding


Uterus Pathology
cervical cancer
malignant tumor of the cervix
endometrial
cancer
malignant tumor of the lining of the

uterus
fibroid tumor
benign fibrous tumor in the uterus
menometrorrhagia
excessive bleeding during menstrual

period or between menstrual periods
prolapsed uterus
fallen uterus; may cause cervix to

protrude through vaginal opening


Figure 10.15 Common sites for the development of fibroid tumors.

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Vagina Pathology
candidiasis
yeast infection of mucous membrane

lining of vagina
cystocele
bladder presses backwards on

vaginal wall
rectocele
rectum presses forward on vaginal

wall
toxic shock
syndrome (TSS)
staphylococcus infection occurring in

menstruating women; associated
with prolonged wearing of superabsorbent tampon


Pelvic Cavity Pathology

endometriosis
occurs when endometrial tissue

flows backwards from uterus through
fallopian tubes and into pelvic cavity
pelvic
inflammatory
disease
bacterial infection that has spread

through female reproductive tract
and out into pelvic cavity


Breast Pathology
breast cancer
malignant tumor of the breast tissue
fibrocystic breast
disease
appearance of fibrous tumors in

breast tissue; no association with
cancer


Figure 10.16 Comparison of breast cancer (A) and fibrocystic disease (B).
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Pregnancy Pathology
abruptio
placentae
placenta tears away from uterine wall

prior to delivery of baby
eclampsia
convulsions and coma occurring in

woman in late stages of pregnancy
hemolytic
disease of the
newborn (HDN)
occurs when mother is Rh and baby

is Rh+; mothers antibodies cross the
placenta and attack babys blood;
older name is erythroblastosis fetalis


Pregnancy Pathology
placenta previa
placenta forms low in the uterus

overlying the opening to the cervix
preeclampsia
metabolic disease of pregnancy; may

result in true eclampsia; symptoms
include hypertension, headaches, and
edema; also called toxemia


Figure 10.17 Placenta previa.

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Pregnancy Pathology
prolapsed
umbilical cord
if umbilical cord emerges from birth

canal before baby does, it will become
pinched between babys head & vaginal
wall, cutting off blood flow to baby
spontaneous
abortion
unplanned loss of pregnancy early in

gestation; commonly called a
miscarriage
stillbirth
death of a fetus of viable age; occurs

shortly before or at time of delivery



PAP smear
scraping of cervical cells is examined for

early signs of cervical cancer
pregnancy
test
chemical test to determine a pregnancy

during first few weeks


Diagnostic Imaging
X-ray of uterus and fallopian
hysterosalpingography
tubes after injecting dye in
(HSG)
through cervix
mammography
X-ray of breast for detection of

breast cancer
use of ultrasound waves to

pelvic ultrasonography produce image of pelvic organs
or a fetus within the uterus


colposcopy
examination of the vagina using a

colposcope
culdoscopy
examination of pelvic cavity behind the

uterus using a culdoscope introduced
through an incision in the vaginal wall
laparoscopy
examination of the pelvic cavity and

organs using a laparoscope introduced
through an incision just below the navel


Figure 10.18 A laparoscopic examination; uterus is visible below probe, ovary is at tip of
probe, and fallopian tube along left side. (Southern Illinois University/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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Obstetrical Diagnostic Procedures

removal of amniotic fluid using a needle;
fluid can be used to determine fetal
amniocentesis
maturity and developmental and genetic
disorders
Apgar score
evaluates newborns adjustment to

outside environment; observes color,
heart rate, respiratory rate, muscle tone,
and response to stimulus


Obstetrical Diagnostic Procedures

chorionic villus
removal of a small piece of chorion for
sampling
genetic analysis
(CVS)
fetal
monitoring
electronic equipment on mothers

abdomen or fetuss scalp to check heart
rate during labor and delivery



cervical
biopsy
removing a piece of cervical tissue to

examine for cancer
endometrial
biopsy
(EMB)
removing a sample of endometrial tissue

to examine for cancer
pelvic
examination
physical exam of vagina and adjacent

organs; a speculum is used to open the
vagina


Figure 10.19 A speculum.

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Surgical Treatments
cesarean section
(CS, C-section)
surgical delivery of baby through

abdominal incision
conization
removal of a core of cervical tissue
dilation & curettage dilation of cervix and scraping away

(D&C)
of endometrial lining
episiotomy
incision of perineum to widen birth

canal during delivery


Surgical Treatments
lumpectomy
removal of breast lump and tissue

immediately surrounding it
simple mastectomy removal of breast tissue

radical mastectomy
removal of breast tissue plus chest

muscles and axillary lymph nodes


Surgical Treatments
elective abortion
legal termination of an early

pregnancy
therapeutic
abortion
termination of a pregnancy for the

health of the mother


Surgical Treatments
total abdominal
hysterectomybilateral salpingooophorectomy
(TAH-BSO)
removal of the entire uterus, cervix,

both fallopian tubes, and both
ovaries through an abdominal
incision
vaginal
hysterectomy
removal of the uterus through vagina

rather than an abdominal incision
tubal ligation
surgical tying off of fallopian tubes to

prevent conception



Pharmacology
abortifacient
terminates a pregnancy
Mifeprex,
Prostin E2
fertility drug
triggers ovulation
Clomid,
Gonal-F
hormone
replacement estrogen after
Cenestin,
replacement
menopause or loss of
Premarin
therapy (HRT) ovaries



Pharmacology
oral
contraceptive
pills (OCPs)
prevents conception by
blocking ovulation
Ortho-Cept,
Lo/Ovral
oxytocin
improves uterine
contractions during labor
and delivery
Pitocin,
Syntocinon



Abbreviations
AB
abortion
AI
artificial insemination
BSE
breast self-examination
CS, C-section
cesarean section
CVS
chorionic villus sampling
Cx
cervix
D&C
dilation and curettage



Abbreviations
EDC
estimated date of confinement
EMB
endometrial biopsy
ERT
estrogen replacement therapy
FEKG
fetal electrocardiogram
FHR
fetal heart rate
FHT
fetal heart tone
FSH
follicle stimulating hormone



Abbreviations
FTND
full term normal delivery
GI, grav I
first pregnancy
GYN, gyn
gynecology
HCG, hCG
human chorionic gonadotropin
HDN
hemolytic disease of the newborn
HPV
human papilloma virus
HRT
hormone replacement therapy
HSG
hysterosalpingography



Abbreviations
IUD
intrauterine device
IVF
in vitro fertilization
LBW
low birth weight
LH
luteinizing hormone
LMP
last menstrual period
NB
newborn
OB
obstetrics
OCPs
oral contraceptive pills



Abbreviations
PAP
Papanicolaou test
PI, para I
first birth
PID
pelvic inflammatory disease
PMS
premenstrual syndrome
TAH-BSO
total abdominal hysterectomy-bilateral

salpingo-oophorectomy
TSS
toxic shock syndrome
UC
uterine contraction


Male Reproductive System at a Glance

Functions
of Male Reproductive System
Produces sperm
Delivers sperm to female reproductive tract
Secretes male sex hormones


Male Reproductive System at a Glance

Organs
of Male Reproductive System
Testes
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Penis



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Male Combining Forms

andr/o
balan/o
crypt/o
epididym/o
orch/o
orchi/o
orchid/o
male
glans penis
hidden
epididymis
testes
testes
testes


Male Combining Forms

prostat/o
spermat/o
testicul/o
varic/o
vas/o
vesicul/o
prostate
sperm
testes
varicose veins
vas deferens
seminal vesicle


Male Suffixes
spermia
condition of sperm


Figure 10.21 Electronmicrograph of human sperm. (Juergen Berger, Max-Planck Institute/Science Photo
Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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Word Building with andr/o & balan/o

gen
androgen
male producing
pathy
andropathy
male disease
itis
balanitis
inflammation of glans penis
plasty
balanoplasty
surgical repair of glans penis
rrhea
balanorrhea
discharge from glans penis


Word Building with epididym/o & orch/o

ectomy
epididymectomy removal of epididymis
al
epididymal
pertaining to epididymis
itis
epididymitis
inflammation of epididymis
an ism
anorchism
condition of no testes


Word Building with orchi/o & orchid/o

ectomy
orchiectomy
removal of testes
otomy
orchiotomy
incision into testes
plasty
orchioplasty
surgical repair of testes
ectomy
orchidectomy
removal of testes
pexy
orchidopexy
surgical fixation of testes


Word Building with prostat/o &

spermat/o
itis
prostatitis
inflammation of prostate
ectomy
prostatectomy
removal of prostate
ic
prostatic
pertaining to prostate
ic
spermatic
pertaining to sperm
lysis
spermatolysis
destruction of sperm


Word Building with testicul/o &

vesicul/o
ar
testicular
pertaining to testes
ar
vesicular
pertaining to seminal
vesicles


Word Building with spermia

a
aspermia
condition of no sperm
oligo
oligospermia
condition of scanty sperm


Male Reproductive System Vocabulary

erectile
dysfunction
(ED)
inability to engage in sexual intercourse

due to inability to maintain an erection;
also called impotence
sterility
inability to father children due to a

problem with spermatogenesis


Testes Pathology
cryptorchidism
failure of testes to descend into

scrotum before birth
hydrocele
accumulation of fluid around testes or

along spermatic cord
testicular
carcinoma
malignant tumor of testes
testicular torsion
twisting of spermatic cord
varicocele
varicose veins of the spermatic cord


Prostate Gland Pathology

benign prostatic
hypertrophy
(BPH)
noncancerous enlargement of
prostate gland; common in older men
prostate cancer
malignant tumor of prostate gland


Penis Pathology
epispadias
congenital opening of urethra on dorsal

surface of penis
hypospadias
congenital opening of urethra on

underside of penis
phimosis
narrowing of prepuce; constricts glans

penis
priapism
persistent and painful erection; caused

by pathology, not sexual stimulation


Sexually Transmitted Disease

chancroid highly infections non-syphilitic venereal ulcer
chlamydia bacterial genital infection in males & females
genital
herpes
viral infection that appears like blisters
genital
warts
warts on the genitalia of both males &

females; caused by a virus
gonorrhea bacterial infection of mucous membranes of

(GC)
males & females


Sexually Transmitted Disease

human
sexually transmitted virus that attacks
immunodeficiency
immune system
virus (HIV)
sexually
transmitted
disease (STD)
disease usually acquired as a result

of sexual intercourse; formerly called
venereal disease (VD)
syphilis
chronic bacterial infection; attacks

multiple organs including brain
trichomoniasis
genitourinary infection caused by a

protist in both males and females



prostate-specific blood test to screen for prostate
antigen (PSA)
cancer
semen analysis
part of fertility workup; analyzed for

number, swimming strength, and
shape


Additional Diagnostic Tests

digital rectal
manual examination for enlarged prostate
exam (DRE)


Surgical Procedures
castration
removal of testes
circumcision
removal of prepuce
orchidopexy
surgical fixation to pin undescended

testes in scrotum
sterilization
process of rendering a male or

female unable to conceive children


Surgical Procedures
transurethral resection
removal of prostate tissue by
of prostate (TUR,
inserting device through urethra
TURP)
vasectomy
removal of a segment of vas

deferens to prevent sperm from
ejaculating
vasovasostomy
reconnects ends of vas deferens

to reverse a vasectomy


Figure 10.23 A vasectomy.

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Pharmacology
androgen therapy
replacement of male
hormones
Andronate,
DepAndro
antiprostatic
agents
shrinks benign
prostatic hypertrophy
Proscar,
Avodart
erectile
temporarily produces
dysfunction agents erection
Viagra, Cialis
spermatocide
Semicid,
Ortho-Gynol
destroys sperm



Abbreviations
BPH
benign prostatic hypertrophy
DRE
digital rectal exam
ED
erectile dysfunction
GC
gonorrhea
GU
genitourinary
PSA
prostate-specific antigen



Abbreviations
RPR
rapid plasma reagin (test for syphilis)
SPP
suprapubic prostatectomy
STD
sexually transmitted disease
TUR
transurethral resection
TURP
transurethral resection of prostate
VD
venereal disease


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 11
Endocrine System


Slide 13
Slide 48
Slide 63

Endocrine System Exercise
Diabetes Video


Endocrine System at a Glance

Endocrine
glands secrete hormones

Hormones regulate body activities
Metabolic rate
Water and mineral balance
Immune system reactions
Sexual functioning


Endocrine System at a Glance

Organs
of the Endocrine System
Adrenal glands
Ovaries
Pancreas (islets of Langerhans)
Parathyroid glands
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Testes
Thymus gland
Thyroid gland



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Endocrine System Combining Forms

acr/o
adren/o
adrenal/o
andr/o
calc/o
crin/o
estr/o
extremities
adrenal glands
adrenal glands
male
calcium
secrete
female



glyc/o
glycos/o
gonad/o
home/o
kal/i
natr/o
ophthalm/o
sugar
sugar
sex glands
sameness
potassium
sodium
eye



pancreat/o
pancreas
parathyroid/o parathyroid gland
pineal/o
pineal gland
pituitar/o
pituitary gland
thym/o
thymus
thyr/o
thyroid gland
thyroid/o
thyroid gland
toxic/o
poison

Endocrine System Suffixes

crine
dipsia
prandial
tropin
to secrete
thirst
relating to a meal
stimulate



Collection
of glands
Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream
Chemicals that act on target organs
Increase or decrease targets activity level
Instrumental
in maintaining homeostasis
Maintain stable internal environment


Types of Glands
Two
types of glands in body
Exocrine glands and endocrine glands
Exocrine
glands
Release secretions into duct that carries them to

outside of body
Example: sweat glands
Endocrine
glands
Release hormones directly into bloodstream

Have no ducts, referred to as ductless glands
Example: thyroid gland


Glands of the Endocrine System

Adrenal
glands two
Parathyroid glands four
Pancreas
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Ovaries two in females
Testes two in males
Thymus gland
Thyroid gland

Click here to view an animation of the endocrine system.

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Adrenal Glands
Two
glands, one located above each kidney

Each gland is composed of two sections:
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla


Figure 11.1 The adrenal glands.

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Adrenal Cortex
Hormones
are referred to as corticosteroids
Secreted by adrenal cortex

Steroid hormones
Three
different families of corticosteroids
Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Steroid sex hormones


Adrenal Cortex
Mineralocorticoid
Example: aldosterone
Regulates sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) levels
Glucocorticoid
Example: cortisol
Regulates carbohydrates
Steroid
sex hormones
Androgens, estrogen, and progesterone

Regulate secondary sexual characteristics


Adrenal Medulla
Inner
portion
Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Epinephrine is also called adrenaline
Critical during emergency situations

Increases blood pressure
Increases heart rate
Increases respiration rate


Ovaries
Two
ovaries located in pelvic cavity of females

Secrete female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone
Estrogen is responsible for:
Female sexual characteristics
Regulation of menstrual cycle
Progesterone
Maintains suitable uterine environment for

pregnancy


Figure 11.2 The ovaries.

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Pancreas
Located
along lower
curvature of stomach
Only organ that has
both endocrine and
exocrine functions


Pancreas
Exocrine
portion
Releases digestive
enzymes through
duct into duodenum
Endocrine
sections
of the pancreas
Islets of
Langerhans
Produce insulin and
glucagon


Pancreas
Insulin
Produced by beta cells

Stimulates cells of body to take in glucose from
bloodstream
Lowers blood sugar level
Occurs after eating a meal and absorbing
carbohydrates


Pancreas
Glucagon
Produced by alpha cells

Stimulates liver to release stored glucose into
bloodstream
Raises blood sugar levels
Occurs when body needs more glucose


Figure 11.3 The pancreas.

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Parathyroid Glands
Four
tiny glands
Located on dorsal
surface of thyroid
gland


Parathyroid Glands
Secretes
If
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Regulates level of calcium in bloodstream
calcium levels in blood fall too low:
Parathyroid hormone levels in the blood increase

Stimulate bone breakdown
Releasing more calcium into bloodstream


Figure 11.4 The parathyroid glands.

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Pineal Gland
Small
pine coneshaped gland

Part of thalamus
region of brain


Pineal Gland
Secretes
melatonin
Not well understood, but plays a role in
regulating bodys circadian rhythm
24-hour clock that governs periods of wakefulness

and sleepiness


Figure 11.5 The pineal gland is a part of the thalamus region of the brain.

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Pituitary Gland
Small
marbleshaped gland
Located underneath
brain
Divided into anterior
and posterior lobes
Regulated by
hypothalamus


Figure 11.6 The pituitary gland lies just underneath the brain. It is
subdivided into anterior and posterior lobes.
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Anterior Pituitary
Referred
to as master gland
Secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine

glands
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Regulates function of thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropin
hormone (ACTH)
Regulates function of adrenal cortex


Anterior Pituitary
Gonadotropins
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)
FSH
Responsible for development of ova and sperm

Also stimulates ovary to secrete estrogen
LH
Stimulates secretion of sex hormones

Plays a role in releasing ova in females


Anterior Pituitary
Growth
hormone (GH)
Also called somatotropin

Stimulates cells to grow and divide
Prolactin
(PRL)
Stimulates milk production in breast
Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH)
Stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin


Figure 11.7 The different hormones and target tissues for the
anterior pituitary.
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Posterior Pituitary
Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
Also called vasopressin

Promotes water reabsorption by the kidney tubules
Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor and

delivery
After birth stimulates release of milk from breast


Testes
Two
oval glands located in scrotum

Secrete male sex hormone, testosterone
Testosterone
Produces male secondary sexual characteristics
Regulates sperm production


Figure 11.8 The testes.

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Thymus Gland
Located
in
mediastinum
Part of immune
system
Also endocrine gland
Secretes thymosin


Thymus Gland
Thymosin
Essential for growth and development of thymic

lymphocytes or T cells
Critical part of bodys immune system
Present
at birth and grows to largest size

during puberty
At puberty begins to shrink and eventually is
replaced with connective and adipose tissue


Figure 11.9 The thymus gland.

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Thyroid Gland
Located
on either
side of trachea
Resembles a
butterfly in shape
Divided into right and
left lobes


Thyroid Gland
Thyroid
hormones
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Needs
iodine to make hormones

These hormones:
Regulate energy production
Adjust metabolic rate


Thyroid Gland
Also
If
secretes calcitonin
Regulates level of calcium in bloodstream
calcium levels in blood rise too high:
Calcitonin levels in blood increase

Increases deposition of calcium into bone
Lowers levels of calcium in bloodstream
Its
action is opposite of parathyroid hormone


Figure 11.10 The thyroid gland is divided into a left and right lobe.
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Endocrine System Exercise
Click here to review the endocrine system glands in a labeling activity.

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Word Building with adren/o & adrenal/o

al
adrenal
pertaining to adrenal gland
megaly
adrenomegaly
enlarged adrenal gland
pathy
adrenopathy
adrenal gland disease
ectomy
adrenalectomy
removal of adrenal gland
itis
adrenalitis
inflammation of adrenal
gland


Word Building with calc/o & crin/o

hyper emia
hypercalcemia
excessive calcium in
blood
hypo emia
hypocalcemia
low calcium in blood
endo ologist endocrinologist
specialist in endocrine
system
endo pathy
endocrine system
disease
endocrinopathy


Word Building with glyc/o, kal/i, & natr/o

hyper emia hyperglycemia excessive sugar in blood
hypo emia
hypoglycemia
low sugar in blood
hyper emia hyperkalemia
excessive potassium in
blood
hypo emia
low sodium in blood
hyponatremia


Word Building with parathyroid/o &

pancreat/o
al
parathyroidal
pertaining to parathyroid
ectomy parathyroidectomy
removal of parathyroid
hyper
ism
hyperparathyroidism
state of excessive
parathyroid
hypo
ism
hypoparathyroidism
state of insufficient
parathyroid
ic
pancreatic
pertaining to pancreas


Word Building with pituitar/o & thym/o

ary
pituitary
pertaining to pituitary
hypo ism
hypopituitarism
state of low pituitary
hyper ism hyperpituitarism
state of excessive
pituitary
ic
thymic
pertaining to thymus
ectomy
thymectomy
removal of thymus
itis
thymitis
inflammation of thymus
oma
thymoma
thymus tumor


Word Building with thyr/o & thyroid/o

megaly
thyromegaly
enlarged thyroid
al
thyroidal
pertaining to thyroid
ectomy
thyroidectomy
removal of thyroid
hyper ism
state of excessive
hyperthyroidism
thyroid
hypo ism
hypothyroidism

state of low thyroid

Endocrine System Vocabulary

acidosis
excessive acidity of body fluids
edema
excessive fluid in body tissues
diagnosis and treatment of conditions of

endocrinology
endocrine glands
exophthalmos protruding eyeballs
gynecomastia development of breast tissue in males
hirsutism
excessive amount of hair


Figure 11.11 A photograph of a woman with exophthalmos. This condition

is associated with hypersecretion of the thyroid gland. (Custom Medical
Stock Photo, Inc.)
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Endocrine System Vocabulary

hypersecretion
excessive hormone production by

endocrine gland
hyposecretion
insufficient hormone production by

endocrine gland
obesity
having abnormal amount of fat
syndrome
group of symptoms and signs that

combine to present a clinical picture of
disease or condition


Adrenal Gland Pathology

Addisons
disease
hyposecretion of adrenal cortex;

symptoms include generalized weakness
and weight loss
adrenal
feminization
hypersecretion of estrogen by adrenal

cortex in males; develops female
secondary sexual characteristics like
gynecomastia
adrenal
virilism
hypersecretion of testosterone by adrenal

cortex in females; develops male
secondary sexual characteristics


Adrenal Gland Pathology

hypersecretion of adrenal cortex;
symptoms include weakness,
Cushings syndrome
edema, excess hair growth, and
osteoporosis
hypersecretion of epinephrine by
adrenal medulla tumor; usually
pheochromocytoma benign; symptoms include anxiety,
heart palpitations, dyspnea, and
headache


Figure 11.12 Cushings syndrome. (Biophoto Associates/ Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

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Pancreas Pathology
diabetes mellitus
(DM)
Chronic disorder of carbohydrate

metabolism
Results in hyperglycemia and
glycosuria
Two very distinct types:
- insulin-dependent
- non-insulin-dependent


Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus
(IDDM)
Also called Type 1
Develops early in life
Destruction of islet cells
Person makes too little
insulin
Must take insulin
injections

Non-insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM)
Also called Type 2
Develops later in life
Person makes enough
insulin, but it has lost
ability to regulate cells
Do not take insulin
Treated by diet,
exercise, and oral
medications
Diabetes Video
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Pancreas Pathology
diabetic
retinopathy
accumulation of damage to retina;

complication of diabetes mellitus
ketoacidosis
acidosis due to excess of acidic ketone

bodies; serious complication of diabetes
mellitus
peripheral
neuropathy
damage to nerves in lower legs and

hands as a result of diabetes mellitus
insulinoma
islet of Langerhans tumor; secretes

excessive amount of insulin


Parathyroid Gland Pathology

tetany
nerve irritability and painful

muscle cramps due to
hypocalcemia; may be caused by
hypoparathyroidism
Recklinghausen
disease
hypersecretion of parathyroid
hormone; causes degeneration of
bones


Pituitary Gland Pathology

acromegaly
chronic hypersecretion of growth

hormone in adults; causes enlargement
of bones of head and extremities
diabetes
insipidus (DI)
hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone;

symptoms include polyuria and
polydipsia
dwarfism
hyposecretion of growth hormone in

children; causes short stature


Figure 11.13 Acromegaly. The hand on the right is from a normal person, the hand
on the left is a person with acromegaly. (Bart's Medical Library/Phototake NYC)

Bonnie F. Fremgen and Sue
Suzanne
Frucht
S. Frucht
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Pituitary Gland Pathology

gigantism
hypersecretion of growth hormone

in child; results in very tall adult
panhypopituitarism
hyposecretion of all pituitary

hormones; results in problems with
the glands controlled by pituitary
gland


Thyroid Gland Pathology

cretinism
congenital hyposecretion of thyroid;

results in poor physical and mental
development
goiter
enlarged thyroid gland
Graves disease
hypersecretion of thyroid; symptoms

include exophthalmos and goiter


Figure 11.14 Goiter.

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Thyroid Gland Pathology

Hashimotos
disease
autoimmune destruction of thyroid;

results in hyposecretion disorder
myxedema
hyposecretion disorder in adult;

symptoms include anemia, edema,
and mental lethargy
thyrotoxicosis
marked hypersecretion; symptoms

include rapid heart rate, tremors,
thyromegaly, and weight loss


Endocrine Gland Pathology

adenocarcinoma
cancerous tumor in gland that

produces hormones secreted by that
gland; results in hypersecretion
pathologies



blood serum test
measures level of substances, such

as calcium, glucose, or hormones,
in blood
total calcium
measures calcium in blood; used to

diagnose parathyroid or bone
disorders
radioimmunoassay measures levels of hormones in

(RIA)
blood



fasting blood
sugar (FSB)
measures glucose in bloodstream after

12-hour fast
glucose
tolerance test
(GTT)
measures blood sugar level over

several hours after person drinks large
dose of glucose
two-hour
postprandial
glucose
tolerance test
measures blood glucose level two

hours after a meal



measures T4 blood level; iodine in the
protein
bound iodine hormone becomes bound to blood
test (PBI)
proteins
thyroid
function test
(TFT)
measures levels of T3, T4, and TSH in

blood


Diagnostic Imaging
thyroid
echogram
ultrasound image of thyroid gland
thyroid scan
nuclear medicine image based on

accumulation of radioactive iodine in
thyroid gland


Medical Treatments
chemical
thyroidectomy
large dose of radioactive iodine is given

to kill a portion of the thyroid gland;
avoids surgery
hormone
replacement
therapy
administering replacement hormones;

treats hyposecretion disorders


Surgical Treatments
laparoscopic
adrenalectomy
removal of adrenal gland through

small abdominal laparoscopic
incision
lobectomy
removal of a lobe of thyroid gland


Endocrine System Pharmacology

antithyroid
agents
blocks production of
thyroid hormones
Tapazole
corticosteroids
replaces adrenal cortex

hormones
Deltasone
human growth
replaces growth
hormone
hormone
therapy

Genotropin,
Protropin

Endocrine System Pharmacology

insulin
treats type 1 diabetes

mellitus
Humulin L
oral
hypoglycemic
agents
decreases blood sugar

in type 2 diabetics
Glucophage,
Glucotrol
thyroid
replacement
hormone
replaces thyroid
hormones
Levo-T,
Cytomel
vasopressin
treats diabetes insipidus
Desmopressin,
Vaprisol


Endocrine System Abbreviations
alpha
ACTH
adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADH
antidiuretic hormone
beta
BMR
basal metabolic rate
DI
diabetes insipidus
DM
diabetes mellitus



FBS
fasting blood sugar
FSH
follicle-stimulating hormone
GH
growth hormone
GTT
glucose tolerance test
IDDM
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
K+
potassium
LH
luteinizing hormone



MSH
melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Na+
sodium
NIDDM
non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
NPH
neutral protamine Hagedorn (insulin)
PBI
protein-bound iodine
PRL
prolactin
PTH
parathyroid hormone



RAI
radioactive iodine
RIA
radioimmunoassay
T3
triiodothyronine
T4
thyroxine
TFT
thyroid function test
TSH
thyroid-stimulating hormone


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 12
Nervous System


Slide 12
Slide 50
Slide 80
Slide 81
Slide 82
Slide 85
Slide 90
Slide 99
Nervous Anatomy Animation

Brain and Brain Stem Anatomy Exercise
Epilepsy Video
Tonic-Clonic Seizure Video
Absence Seizure Video
Parkinson's Disease Video
Multiple Sclerosis Animation
Electroneurodiagnostic Technician Video


Nervous System at a Glance

Functions
of Nervous System
Coordinates and controls body function

Receives sensory input
Makes decisions
Orders body responses


Nervous System at a Glance

Organs
of Nervous System
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves



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Nervous System Combining Forms

cephal/o
cerebell/o
cerebr/o
encephal/o
gli/o
medull/o
head
cerebellum
cerebrum
brain
glue
medulla



mening/o
meningi/o
myel/o
neur/o
phas/o
poli/o
meninges
meninges
spinal cord
nerve
speech
gray matter



pont/o
radicul/o
thalam/o
thec/o
ventricul/o
pons
nerve root
thalamus
sheath (meninges)
ventricle


Nervous System Suffixes

algesia
esthesia
paresis
phasia
plegia
taxia
pain, sensitivity
feeling, sensation
weakness
speech
paralysis
muscle coordination



Coordinates
all activity of body
Receives information from both external and

internal sensory receptors
Uses that information to adjust activity of muscles
and glands to match needs of body
Nervous
system is divided into:
Central nervous system (CNS)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)



Central
nervous system consists of:
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral
nervous system consists of:
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves


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Nervous Tissue
Nervous
system composed of two types of
cells
Neurons
Neuroglial cells
Neurons
Individual nerve cells

Capable of conducting electrical impulses


Nervous Tissue
Neurons
have three basic parts:
Dendrites highly branched projections that

receive impulses
Nerve cell body contains nucleus & organelles
Axon conducts electrical impulse to destination


Figure 12.1A The structure of a neuron.

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Figure 12.1B Photomicrograph of typical neuron showing the

nerve cell body, nucleus, and dendrites.
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Nervous Tissue
Synapse
Point where axon of one neuron meets dendrite of

second neuron
Synaptic
cleft
Gap between two neurons in a synapse

Electrical impulse cannot cross
Neurotransmitter
Chemical released by axon

Crosses gap to stimulate dendrite of second neuron


Nervous Tissue
Neuroglial
cells
Variety of cells found in nervous tissue

Each has different support function for neurons
Some neuroglial cells produce myelin, a fatty
substance that acts as insulation for many axons
Neuroglial cells do not conduct electrical impulses


Figure 12.2 Electronmicrograph illustrating an axon (red) wrapped

in its myelin sheath (blue).
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Central Nervous System

Combination
of the brain and spinal cord
Function
Receives impulses from all over body

Processes this information
Responds with action
Bundles
of nerve fibers interconnecting

different parts of CNS are called tracts


Central Nervous System

Consists
of both gray and white matter

Gray matter
Comprised
of unsheathed or uncovered cell

bodies and dendrites
White
matter
Myelinated
nerve fibers


The Brain
One
of the largest organs in body

Coordinates most body activities
It is center for:
Thoughts
Memory
Judgment
Emotion


The Brain
Four
sections:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brain stem


Figure 12.3 The regions of the brain.

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Cerebrum
Largest
section
Upper portion
Processes:
Thoughts
Judgment
Memory
Association skills
Ability to
discriminate
between items



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Cerebrum
Cerebral
cortex
Outer layer of cerebrum

Composed of folds of gray matter
Gyri
Elevated portions of the cerebrum, or convolutions
Sulci
Fissures, or valleys, between gyri


Lobes of Cerebrum
Subdivided
into left and right halves called

cerebral hemispheres
Each hemisphere has four lobes:
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe


Lobes of Cerebrum
Frontal
lobe
Most anterior lobe

Controls motor
function, personality,
and speech
Parietal
lobe
Most superior portion

Receives & interprets
nerve impulses
Interprets language


Lobes of Cerebrum
Occipital
lobe
Most posterior
Controls vision
Temporal
lobe
Left and right lateral

portion
Controls hearing and
smell


Figure 12.4 The functional regions of the cerebrum.

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Diencephalon
Located
below
cerebrum
Contains two of most
critical areas of
brain:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus



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Diencephalon
Thalamus
Center for relaying impulses from eyes, ears, and

skin to cerebrum
Controls perception of pain
Hypothalamus
Controls body temperature, appetite, sleep, sexual

desire, and emotions
Controls autonomic nervous system, cardiovascular
system, gastrointestinal system, and release of
hormones from pituitary gland


Cerebellum
Second
largest portion of brain

Located beneath posterior part of cerebrum
Aids in:
Coordinating voluntary body movements
Maintaining balance and equilibrium
Refines
muscular movements initiated in

cerebrum



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Brain Stem
Has three components:
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata



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Brain Stem
Midbrain
Acts as pathway for impulses between brain and

spinal cord
Pons
Means bridge
Connects cerebellum to rest of brain
Medulla
oblongata
Most inferior portion of brain

Connects brain to spinal cord


Brain Ventricles
Cavities
containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Watery, clear fluid

Provides shock protection for CNS
Locations:
One in each cerebral hemisphere

One in thalamus
One in front of cerebellum


Spinal Cord
Extends from medulla

oblongata to second
lumbar vertebra
Within vertebral
column
33 vertebrae of back
bone
Line up to form
continuous canal
Called spinal cavity
or vertebral canal


Figure 12.5A The levels of the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
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Spinal Cord
Protected
by cerebrospinal fluid
Flows through central canal down through spinal

cord
Outer
portion of spinal cord is myelinated

white matter
Ascending tracts carry sensory information up to
brain
Descending tracts carry motor commands down
from brain to peripheral nerve


Figure 12.5B Photograph of the spinal cord as it descends from the brain
with spinal nerve roots visible. (Video Surgery/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Meninges
Protective
membrane sac
Encases entire CNS
Consists of three
layers:
Dura mater
Arachnoid layer
Pia mater


Figure 12.6 The meninges.

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Meninges
Dura mater
Means tough mother

Outermost, tough,
fibrous sac around
CNS
Subdural space
Empty space
between dura mater
and arachnoid layer


Meninges
Arachnoid layer
Means spider-like
Thin, delicate layer
attached to pia mater
by web-like filaments
Subarachnoid space
Between arachnoid
layer and pia mater
Contains
cerebrospinal fluid


Meninges
Pia mater
Means soft mother

Innermost
membrane layer
Applied directly to
surface of brain


Brain and Brain Stem Anatomy

Exercise
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists
of:
12 pairs of cranial nerves

31 pairs of spinal nerves
Cranial
nerves
Arise from brain
Spinal
nerves
Split off from spinal cord

One pair (left and right) exit between each pair of
vertebrae


Nerves
A nerve:
Is a bundle of axon fibers located outside CNS

Carries messages between CNS and various parts
of body
Nerve
root
Point where nerve is attached to CNS
Names
of most nerves reflect:
Organ the nerve serves

Portion of body the nerve is traveling through


Figure 12.7 The major spinal nerves.

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Table 12.1 Cranial Nerves

I
Olfactory
sense of smell
II
Optic
sense of sight
II
Oculomotor
controls eye muscles and pupil of eye
IV
Trochlear
controls oblique muscles of eye
Trigeminal
facial sensation and controls muscles

for chewing
VI
Abducens
controls eyeball muscles to turn eye to

side


Table 12.1 Cranial Nerves

VII
Facial
controls facial muscles for

expression, salivation, and taste on
two-thirds of tongue (anterior)
VIII Vestibulocochlear sense of equilibrium and hearing

IX
Glossopharyngeal
sensation from pharynx and taste on

one-third of tongue
Vagus
supplies most organs in abdominal

and thoracic cavities
XI
Accessory
controls neck and shoulder muscles
XII
Hypoglossal
controls tongue muscles


Neurons
Each
nerve can carry information both to and

from CNS
But any individual neuron can carry
information in only one direction
Either an:
Afferent neuron
Efferent neuron


Neurons
Afferent
neurons
Also called sensory neurons

Carry sensory information from sensory receptor to
CNS
Efferent
neurons
Also called motor neurons

Carry activity instructions from CNS to muscles or
glands


Figure 12.8 A reflex arc showing afferent and efferent neurons.

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Divisions of PNS
Nerves
of PNS are subdivided into two

divisions
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Somatic nerves
Each
division serves different area of body


Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Control
of involuntary or unconscious bodily

functions
It may increase or decrease the activity of:
Smooth muscle found in viscera and blood vessels
Cardiac muscle of heart
Glands
ANS
divided into 2 branches:
Sympathetic branch
Parasympathetic branch


Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic
branch
Stimulates body in times of stress and crisis

Increases heart rate, dilates airways, increases
blood pressure, inhibits digestion, and stimulates
production of adrenaline
Parasympathetic
branch
Serves as counterbalance for sympathetic nerves

Causes heart rate to slow down, lowers blood
pressure, and stimulates digestion


Somatic Nerves
Mainly
involved with conscious and voluntary

activities of body
Serve skin and skeletal muscles
Carry information from sensory receptors of skin

Such
as touch, temperature, pressure, and pain
Carry motor commands to skeletal muscles


Word Building with cephal/o,

cerebell/o and cerebr/o
algia
cephalalgia
head pain
ar
cerebellar
pertaining to cerebellum
itis
cerebellitis
inflammation of cerebellum
al
cerebral
pertaining to cerebrum
spin/o
al
cerebrospinal
pertaining to cerebrum and

spine


Word Building with encephal/o,

meningi/o and mening/o
electr/o
gram
electroencephalogram
record of brain
electricity
itis
encephalitis
brain inflammation
oma
meningioma
meninges tumor
eal
meningeal
pertaining to meninges
itis
meningitis
meninges inflammation


Word Building with neur/o

al
neural
pertaining to nerve
algia
neuralgia
nerve pain
ectomy
neurectomy
removal of nerve
ologist
neurologist
nerve specialist
oma
neuroma
nerve tumor


Word Building with neur/o

pathy
neuropathy
nerve disease
plasty
neuroplasty
surgical repair of nerve
poly
itis
polyneuritis
inflammation of many
nerves
rrhaphy
neurorrhaphy
suture a nerve


Word Building with myel/o and pont/o

gram
myelogram
spinal cord record
itis
myelitis
inflammation of spinal
cord
ine
pontine
pertaining to pons


Word Building with radicul/o, thalam/o

and thec/o
itis
radiculitis
nerve root inflammation
pathy
radiculopathy
nerve root disease
ic
thalamic
pertaining to thalamus
intra al intrathecal

pertaining to inside
meninges

Nervous System Vocabulary

anesthesiology
the use of anesthesia for surgical

procedures, resuscitation, and pain
management
neurology

nervous system
neurosurgery
treating nervous system disease by

surgical means



aura
sensations occurring prior to epileptic

seizure or migraine; such as seeing colors
convulsion
alternating between strong involuntary

muscle contractions and relaxations
seizure
sudden, uncontrollable onset of symptoms;

such as in epileptic seizure
focal
seizure
seizure in only one limb or body part
syncope
fainting



conscious
awake and aware of surroundings
unconscious
unaware of surroundings; unable to

respond to stimuli
coma
state of profound unconsciousness
paresthesia
abnormal sensations such as burning or

tingling
tremor
involuntary repetitive alternating

movements



delirium
confusion, disorientation, and agitation
dementia
impaired intellectual function
hemiparesis
weakness on one side of body
paralysis
temporary or permanent loss of voluntary

movement
hemiplegia
paralysis on one side of body
paraplegia
paralysis of lower portion of body
palsy
loss of ability to control movements


Brain Pathology
Alzheimers
disease
disorder characterized by progressive

dementia, disorientation, apathy, and loss
of memory
astrocytoma
malignant tumor originating in astrocytes,

a neuroglial cell
brain tumor
intracranial mass; may be malignant or

benign; dangerous because occupies
space
cerebral
aneurysm
ballooning of cerebral artery; may cause

stroke


Figure 12.9 Color enhanced CT-scan showing two malignant

tumors in the brain. (Scott Camazine/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
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Figure 12.10 Common locations for cerebral artery aneurysms in

the Circle of Willis.
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Brain Pathology
cerebral
contusion
bruising of brain from impact; symptoms

last longer than 24 hrs; include
unconsciousness, dizziness, vomiting,
unequal pupils
concussion
brain injury from impact; symptoms last

less than 24 hrs
cerebral
palsy (CP)
brain damage results from defect, trauma,

or oxygen deprivation at time of birth


Brain Pathology
cerebrovascular
accident (CVA)
infarct due to loss of blood supply to

brain; may be due to hemorrhage,
thrombus, embolus, or compression;
commonly called a stroke
transient ischemic temporary interference with blood

attack (TIA)
supply to brain; may lead to a CVA
migraine
specific type of headache with

severe pain, light sensitivity,
dizziness, and nausea


Figure 12.11 The four common causes for cerebrovascular

accidents.
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Brain Pathology
epilepsy
seizures and loss of consciousness

caused by uncontrolled electrical activity
of brain
tonic-clonic
seizure
epileptic seizure with strong muscle

spasms; formerly called grand mal
absence
seizure
epileptic seizure characterized by loss of

awareness and absence of activity;
formerly called petit mal


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Tonic-Clonic Seizure Video
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Absence Seizure Video
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Brain Pathology
hydrocephalus
accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid

within brain ventricles
Parkinsons
disease
chronic disorder of brain with tremors,

weakness, muscle rigidity, and shuffling
gait
Reye
syndrome
acute encephalopathy and organ

damage; follows viral infection and
associated with taking aspirin


Figure 12.12 Hydrocephalus.

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Spinal Cord Pathology

amyotrophic
degeneration of motor neurons of
lateral sclerosis spinal cord; also called Lou Gehrigs
(ALS)
disease
poliomyelitis
viral infection affecting spinal cord;

paralysis may be mild and temporary or
severe and permanent
spinal cord
injury (SCI)
damage to spinal cord due to trauma;

may be bruised and recover or severed
and permanent


Spinal Cord Pathology

spina bifida
congenital defect where lamina of

vertebra do not meet or close to
form spinal canal
meningocele
protrusion of meninges sac through

opening left by spina bifida defect
protrusion of meninges and spinal

myelomeningocele cord through opening left by spina
bifida defect


Figure 12.13 Spina bifida.

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Nerve Pathology
Bells palsy
one-sided facial paralysis due to

inflammation of facial nerve caused by
virus
temporary loss of myelin sheath; may be

Guillain-Barr
autoimmune; starts in legs and
syndrome
progresses up nervous system
multiple
loss of myelin sheath; results in
sclerosis (MS) weakness and numbness


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Nerve Pathology
muscular weakness and fatigue due
myasthenia gravis to insufficient neurotransmitter at
synapses
shingles
eruption of painful blisters on body

along a nerve path; caused by
Herpes zoster virus


Figure 12.14 Photograph of the skin eruptions associated with

shingles.
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Meninges Pathology
epidural
hematoma
mass of blood in space outside dura mater
subdural
hematoma
mass of blood forming inside subdural

space; due to torn meningeal blood
vessel; space occupying lesion


Figure 12.15 A subdural hematoma.

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cerebrospinal
fluid analysis
examination of CSF; may detect

infections and blood in the fluid


Diagnostic Imaging
brain scan
image of brain after injection of

radioactive isotopes into
bloodstream
cerebral angiography
X-ray of cerebral blood vessels

after injection of radiopaque dye
echoencephalography ultrasound image of brain


Diagnostic Imaging
myelography
X-ray of spinal cord after injection of

radiopaque dye into spinal canal
positron
emission
tomography
(PET)
use of positive radionuclides to construct

an image of the brain; image reveals
metabolic activity of brain areas


Additional Diagnostic Tests

Babinskis reflex
reflex test that reveals nervous

system lesions; performed by
stroking sole of foot
electroencephalography records the electrical activity of

(EEG)
brain
lumbar puncture
puncture to remove CSF for

examination
nerve conduction
velocity
measures speed at which an

impulse travels along a nerve;
reveals nerve damage


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Figure 12.16 A lumbar puncture.

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Medical Treatment
nerve block
anesthetic injection into nerve area to

block nerve impulses on that nerve; used
to treat chronic pain


Surgical Treatments
removes blockage of major artery in
carotid
neck that carries blood to brain by
endarterectomy
removing inner lining of the artery
cerebrospinal
fluid shunt
shunt carries CSF from ventricle to

abdominal cavity; treats hydrocephalus
laminectomy
removes part of vertebra; relieves

pressure on spinal nerve
tractotomy
surgical cut of nerve tract; treats severe

chronic pain


Nervous System Pharmacology

analgesic
treats minor to moderate

pain, non-narcotic
Tylenol,
Aleve
anesthetic
produces loss of sensation

or consciousness
Xylocaine,
Novocain
reduces nerve excitability to Tegretol,

anticonvulsant
prevent seizures
Nembutal
dopaminergic
drugs
treats Parkinsons disease

L-dopa,
Sinemet

Nervous System Pharmacology

hypnotic
promotes sleep
Seconal, Restoril
narcotic
analgesic
treats severe pain
OxyContin,
Demerol
sedative
calming or relaxing
effect
Amytal, Butisol


Nervous System Abbreviations

ALS
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
ANS
autonomic nervous system
CNS
central nervous system
CP
cerebral palsy
CSF
cerebrospinal fluid
CVA
cerebrovascular accident
CVD
cerebrovascular disease
EEG
electroencephalography


Nervous System Abbreviations

HA
headache
ICP
intracranial pressure
LP
lumbar puncture
MS
multiple sclerosis
PET
positron emission tomography
PNS
peripheral nervous system
SCI
spinal cord injury
TIA
transient ischemic attack


Medical Terminology
A Living Language
Chapter 13
Special Senses: The Eye and Ear


Slide 13
Slide 39
Slide 46
Slide 55
Slide 62
Slide 63
Slide 75
Slide 93
Slide 95
Slide 109
Slide 114
Slide 129
Slide 133
Slide 136

Eye Anatomy Exercise
Conjunctivitis Video
Optometrist Video
Cataracts Video
Macular Degeneration Video
Snellen Chart Video
Audiology Video
Ear Anatomy Exercise
Inner Ear Anatomy Animation
Otitis Media Video
Tympanometry Video
Audiometry Video


The Eye at a Glance

Function
of the Eye
Contains sensory receptors for vision


The Eye at a Glance

Structures
of the Eye
Sclera
Choroid
Retina
Eyeball
Conjunctiva
Eye muscles
Eyelids
Lacrimal apparatus



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Eye Combining Forms

ambly/o
aque/o
blephar/o
chrom/o
conjunctiv/o
core/o
corne/o
dull or dim
water
eyelid
color
conjunctiva
pupil
cornea


Eye Combining Forms

cycl/o
dacry/o
dipl/o
glauc/o
ir/o
irid/o
kerat/o
ciliary muscle
tear; tear duct
double
gray
iris
iris
cornea


Eye Combining Forms

lacrim/o
ocul/o
ophthalm/o
opt/o
optic/o
nyctal/o
papill/o
phac/o
tears
eye
eye
eye, vision
eye
night
optic disk
lens


Eye Combining Forms

phot/o
presby/o
pupill/o
retin/o
scler/o
uve/o
vitre/o
light
old age
pupil
retina
sclera
vascular
glassy


Eye Suffixes
metrist
opia
tropia
one who measures

vision
to turn



Ophthalmology
(Ophth) is study of the eye
Eyeball
Organ of sight
Transmits external image using sensory impulses
via optic nerve to brain
Brain translates sensory impulses into image



External
structures important for vision
In addition to eyeball
Eye muscles
Eyelids
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal apparatus


Click here to view an animation on the anatomy of the eye.

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The Eyeball
Composed
of three layers:
Sclera
Choroid
Retina


Sclera
Outermost
layer
Tough protective
layer
Another term for
sclera is white of eye
Anterior portion is
cornea


Figure 13.1 The internal structures of the eye.

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Cornea
Anterior
portion of
sclera
Clear, transparent
Allows light to enter
Bends, or refracts,
light rays



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Choroid
Middle
layer
Provides blood
supply for eye
Anterior portion:
Iris
Pupil
Ciliary
body



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Iris and Pupil

Iris
Colored portion of
eye
Smooth muscle that
changes size of pupil
Pupil
Opening in center of
iris
Allows light to enter
into eyeball


Ciliary Body and Lens

Lens
Behind iris
Not actually part of
choroid layer
Attached to ciliary body
Ciliary
body
Pulls on edge of lens

Changes shape of lens
so it can focus light
onto retina



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Retina
Contains
sensory
receptor cells that
detect light rays
Rods
Active in dim light
See gray tones
Cones
Active only in bright

light
Color vision



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Retina
Macula
lutea
Area of retina where

image forms
Fovea
centralis
Depression in center
of macula lutea
High number of
cones
Point of clearest
vision



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Optic Disk
Point
where the optic nerve leaves eyeball

Retinal blood vessels enter and leave through
optic disk
No rods or cones
Results in blind spot in each eyes field of vision


Figure 13.2 Photograph of the retina of the eye. The optic disk
appears yellow and the retinal arteries radiate out from it.
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Eye Fluids
Aqueous
humor
Watery fluid
Located between cornea and lens
Vitreous
humor
Semi-solid gel
Located between lens and retina


Muscles of the Eye

Six
muscles that connect eyeball to skull
4 rectus muscles pull straight

2 oblique muscles pull on an angle
Contract
in combination to change direction in

which each eye is looking


Figure 13.3 The external eye muscles.

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Eyelids
A pair
cover each eyeball

Provide protection from foreign particles,
injury, sun, and trauma
Both upper and lower edges have eyelashes
or cilia that protect eye from foreign particles
Sebaceous glands located in eyelids secrete
a lubricating oil onto surface of eyeball



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Conjunctiva
A mucous
membrane
Forms continuous covering on underside of
each eyelid and across anterior surface of
each eyeball
Protects eyeball



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Lacrimal Apparatus
Lacrimal
gland
Located under outer upper corner of each eyelid

Produces tears
Tears wash and lubricate anterior surface of eyeball
Lacrimal
ducts
Located in inner corner of eye socket

Collect tears
Drain into nasolacrimal duct
Ultimately drain into nasal cavity


Figure 13.5 The structure of the lacrimal apparatus.

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Eye Anatomy Exercise
Click here to review eye anatomy in a labeling activity.

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How We See
rays pass
through:
Light
Cornea
Pupil
Aqueous humor
Lens
Vitreous humor
Then
strike retina
Stimulating rods and

cones


Figure 13.6 The path of light through the cornea, pupil, lens, and
striking the retina.
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How We See
Upside-down
image
forms on retina
Optic nerve
transmits this image
to brain
Brain turns upsidedown image into
right-side up image


Figure 13.7 The image formed on the retina is inverted. The brain
rights the image as part of the interpretation process.
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Vision
Vision requires four mechanisms:
Coordination of external eye muscles so that both

eyes move together
Correct amount of light admitted by pupil
Correct focus of light upon retina by lens
Optic nerve transmitting sensory images to brain


Word Building with blephar/o and

conjunctiv/o
itis
blepharitis
inflammation of eyelid
plasty
blepharoplasty
surgical repair of eyelid
ptosis
blepharoptosis
drooping eyelid
ectomy
blepharectomy
removal of eyelid
al
conjunctival
pertaining to conjunctiva
itis
conjunctivitis
inflammation of conjunctiva
plasty
conjunctivoplasty
surgical repair of
conjunctiva


Conjunctivitis Video
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Word Building with corne/o, cycl/o &

dacry/o
al
corneal
pertaining to cornea
plegia
cycloplegia
paralysis of ciliary body
cyst/o
itis
dacryocystitis
inflammation of tear
bladder


Word Building with dipl/o, ir/o & irid/o

opia
diplopia
double vision
itis
iritis
inflammation of iris
al
iridal
pertaining to iris
ectomy
iridectomy
removal of iris
plegia
iridoplegia
paralysis of iris
scler/o
otomy
iridosclerotomy
incision into iris and sclera


Word Building with kerat/o, lacrim/o &

ocul/o
itis
keratitis
inflammation of cornea
meter
keratometer
instrument to measure cornea
otomy
keratotomy
incision into cornea
al
lacrimal
pertaining to tears
ar
ocular
pertaining to eye
intra ar intraocular
pertaining to inside eye
myc/o
osis
abnormal condition of eye

fungus
oculomycosis


Word Building with ophthalm/o

algia
ophthalmalgia
eye pain
ic
ophthalmic
pertaining to eye
logist
ophthalmologist
eye specialist
plegia
ophthalmoplegia
eye weakness
rrhagia ophthalmorrhagia
rapid bleeding from eye
scope

eye
ophthalmoscope


Word Building with opt/o, pupill/o &

retin/o
ic
optic
pertaining to eye
meter
optometer
instrument to measure eye
metrist
optometrist
one who measures eye
ary
pupillary
pertaining to pupil
al
retinal
pertaining to retina
pathy
retinopathy
retina disease
pexy
retinopexy
surgical fixation of retina


Word Building with scler/o and uve/o

al
scleral
pertaining to sclera
malacia scleromalacia
sclera softening
otomy
sclerotomy
incision into sclera
itis
scleritis
inflammation of sclera
itis
uveitis
inflammation of choroid


Eye Vocabulary
emmetropia
state of normal vision
legally blind
severely impaired vision; having 20/200

acuity
nyctalopia
difficulty seeing in dim light; also called

night blindness
ophthalmology

the eye
optician
specialist in grinding corrective lenses


Eye Vocabulary
optometry
specializing in examining eyes, testing

vision, and prescribing corrective lenses
papilledema
swelling of the optic disk; also called

choked disk
photophobia
strong sensitivity to bright light
presbyopia
visual loss due to old age
xerophthalmia dry eyes


Optometrist Video
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Eyeball Pathology
achromatopsia
unable to perceive one or more

colors; color blindness
monochromatism
unable to perceive one specific color
amblyopia
loss of vision not as a result of eye

pathology; commonly called lazy eye
corneal abrasion
scraping injury to cornea


Eyeball Pathology
astigmatism
blurred vision due to uneven cornea; light

rays do not focus sharply on retina
hyperopia
image comes into focus behind retina;

can see clearly at a distance but not up
close; also called far sightedness
myopia
image comes into focus in front of retina;

can see clearly up close but not at a
distance; also called nearsightedness


Figure 13.9 Hyperopia (farsightedness). In the uncorrected top figure, the

image would come into focus behind the retina, making the image on the
retina blurry. The bottom image shows how a biconvex lens corrects this
condition.
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Figure 13.10 Myopia (nearsightedness). In the uncorrected top figure, the

image comes into focus in front of the lens, making the image on the retina
blurry. The bottom image shows how a biconcave lens corrects this
condition.
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Eyeball Pathology
cataract
damage to lens causing it to become

cloudy
glaucoma
chronic increase in intraocular pressure;

results in atrophy of optic nerve
macular
deterioration of macula lutea area of
degeneration retina


Figure 13.8 Photograph of a person with a cataract in the right

eye.
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Cataracts Video
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Macular Degeneration Video
Click here to view a video on macular degeneration.

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Eyeball Pathology
retinal
detachment
separation of retina from choroid layer;

damages blood vessels and nerves
causing blindness
retinitis
pigmentosa
progressive disease in which retina

becomes hard and pigmented, then
atrophies
retinoblastoma
malignant eye tumor occurring in young

children


Conjunctiva Pathology
pterygium
hypertrophied conjunctival tissue in inner

corner of eye
trachoma
chronic bacterial infection of conjunctiva


Eyelid Pathology
hordeolum
purulent infection of sebaceous gland of

eyelid; also called a stye (or sty)


Eye Muscle Pathology

strabismus
eye muscle weakness resulting in eyes

looking in different directions at same time
esotropia
(ST)
type of strabismus with inward turning of

eye; also called cross-eyed
exotropia
(XT)
type of strabismus with outward turning of

eye; also called wall-eyed


Figure 13.4 Photograph of an infant with strabismus. The left eye is turned inward, called esotropia.
(Bart's Medical Library/Phototake NYC)

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Brain-related Vision Pathology

hemianopia
loss of vision in half of visual field; often

result of a stroke
nystagmus
jerky involuntary eye movements;

indicator of brain injury


Eye Examination Tests

color vision
tests
use of multicolored charts to determine

ability to recognize colors
fluorescein
angiography
injection of fluorescein dye into

bloodstream to observe blood flow within
eye
fluorescein
staining
applying fluorescein eye drops to cornea

to look for corneal abrasions


Figure 13.11 An example of color blindness test. A person with redgreen color blindness would not be able to distinguish the green
27 from the surrounding red circles.
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keratometry
measures curvature of cornea
ophthalmoscopy examination of interior of eye

refractive error
test
vision test for defect in ability of eye to

focus image on retina; tests for
hyperopia and myopia
slit lamp
microscopy
examining posterior surface of cornea


Figure 13.12 Examination of the interior of the eye using an

ophthalmoscope.
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Snellen chart
used for testing distance vision
tonometry
measures intraocular pressure
visual acuity
(VA)
measures sharpness of vision


Snellen Chart Video
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Surgical Treatments
cryoextraction
use of extremely cold probe to lift

cataract from lens
use of high-frequency sound waves

phacoemulsification to liquefy lens with a cataract which
is then removed with a needle
keratoplasty
surgical repair of cornea with a

cornea transplant
enucleation
surgical removal of eyeball


Surgical Treatments
laser-assisted insitu
correction of myopia using laser
keratomileusis
surgery to remove corneal tissue
(LASIK)
photorefractive
keratectomy
(PRK)
use of laser to reshape cornea; treats

myopia
radial
spoke-like incision around cornea to
keratotomy (RK) flatten it; treats myopia


Figurer 13.13 LASIK surgery. The cornea has been lifted in order
to reshape it. (Chris Barry/Phototake NYC)
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Surgical Treatments
cryoretinopexy
surgical fixation of retina using extreme

cold
laser
use of laser to destroy very small
photocoagulation precise areas of retina
scleral buckling
placing band around outside of sclera

to stabilize detached retina
strabotomy
incision into eye muscles to correct

strabismus


Eye Pharmacology
anesthetic
ophthalmic
solution
eyedrops to deaden pain
antibiotic
ophthalmic
solution
eyedrops to treat bacterial Del-Mycin,

infection
Ilotycin
ophthalmic
decongestant
constricts arterioles of eye

Visine,
to reduce redness and
Murine
itching

Ocu-Caine,
Pontocaine

Eye Pharmacology
antiglaucoma
medication
reduces intraocular
pressure
Betimol, Timoptic
artificial tears
treats dry eyes
Akwa Tears,
Refresh Plus
constricts pupil
Eserine Sulfate,
Miostat
dilates pupil
Atropine-Care,
Atropisol
Ophtalmic
miotic
mydriatic


Eye Abbreviations
ARMD
age-related macular degeneration
Astigm
astigmatism
c. gl.
correction with glasses
diopters (lens strength)
DVA
distance visual acuity
ECCE
extracapsular cataract extraction
EENT
eye, ear, nose, throat


Eye Abbreviations
EM
emmetropia
EOM
extraocular movement
ICCE
intracapsular cataract extraction
IOP
intraocular pressure
LASIK
laser assisted in-situ keratomileusis
OD
right eye
Ophth.
ophthalmology


Eye Abbreviations
OS
left eye
OU
each eye/both eyes
PERRLA
pupils equal, round, reactive to light and

accommodation
PRK
photorefractive keratectomy
REM
rapid eye movement
s. gl.
without correction or glasses
SMD
senile macular degeneration


Eye Abbreviations
ST
esotropia
VA
visual acuity
VF
visual field
XT
exotropia


The Ear at a Glance

Function
of the Ear
Contains sensory receptors for hearing and

equilibrium (balance)


The Ear at a Glance

Structures
of the Ear
Auricle
External ear
Middle ear
Inner ear



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Ear Combining Forms

acous/o
audi/o
audit/o
aur/o
auricul/o
cerumin/o
hearing
hearing
hearing
ear
ear
cerumen


Ear Combining Forms

cochle/o
labyrinth/o
myring/o
ot/o
salping/o
staped/o
tympan/o
cochlea
labyrinth (inner ear)
eardrum
ear
eustachian tube
stapes
eardrum, middle ear


Ear Suffixes
cusis
otia
hearing
ear condition



Otology
(Oto) is study of the ear

Audiology is study of hearing disorders
Ear responsible for two senses:
Hearing
Equilibrium or sense of balance
Sensory
information carried to brain by

vestibulocochlear nerve
Cochlear nerve hearing information
Vestibular nerve balance information


Audiology Video
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The Ear
Ear
is subdivided into three regions:
External ear
Middle ear
Inner ear


Click here to view an animation on the anatomy of the ear.

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External Ear
Auricle
or pinna
Only portion visible

Captures sound
waves
Directs them through
external auditory
meatus


External Ear
Auditory
canal
Sound moves along

canal
Cerumen
Produced by oil
glands in auditory
canal
Oily wax slowly flows
out of ear canal
removing dirt that has
stuck to it


External Ear
Tympanic
membrane
Commonly called
eardrum
Sound waves strike
membrane
Causes it to vibrate
Tympanic
membrane
separates external
ear from middle ear


Figure 13.14 The internal structures of the outer, middle, and inner
ear.
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The Middle Ear

Small
cavity
Located in temporal
bone of skull
Contains three tiny
bones called
ossicles
Malleus
Incus
Stapes


ear.
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Ossicles
Tympanic
membrane
vibrates incus
Vibrations amplify as
they move from one
ossicle to next
Stapes transmits
vibration to oval
window
Start
of inner ear


Figure 13.15 Close-up view of the ossicles within the middle ear.
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Eustachian Tube
Also
called auditory tube

Connects nasopharynx with middle ear
Opens with each swallow
Equalizes pressure between middle ear cavity
and atmospheric pressure


ear.
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The Inner Ear

Labyrinth
Cavity within
temporal bone
Houses inner ear
Contains
sensory
organs


Sensory Organs of Inner Ear

Hearing
Cochlea
Organs of Corti
Equilibrium
Semicircular canals
Utricle
Saccule


ear.
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Ear Anatomy Exercise
Click here to review ear anatomy with a labeling activity.

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How We Hear
Sound
waves travel down external auditory

canal, strike eardrum
Eardrum vibrates


How We Hear
Ossicles
conduct vibrations across middle ear

from eardrum to oval window
Oval window movements initiate vibrations in
fluid that fills cochlea


How We Hear
Fluid
vibrations strike hair cells, bending small

hairs and stimulating nerve endings
Nerve ending sends electrical impulse to brain
on cochlear portion of vestibulocochlear nerve


Figure 13.16 The path of sound waves through the outer, middle,
and inner ear.
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Inner Ear Anatomy Animation
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Hearing Loss
Conductive hearing loss
Disease or malformation
of outer or middle ear
All sound is weaker and
muffled since it is not
conducted correctly to
inner ear

Sensorineural hearing loss

Damage or malformation
of inner ear (cochlea) or
the cochlear nerve
Sounds are distorted
because nerve impulse is
incorrect

Word Building with acous/o, audi/o &

audit/o
tic
acoustic
pertaining to hearing
gram
audiogram
record of hearing
meter
audiometer
instrument to measure hearing
logist
audiologist
hearing specialist
ory
auditory
pertaining to hearing


Word Building with aur/o, auricul/o,

cochle/o and salping/o
al
aural
pertaining to ear
ar
auricular
pertaining to ear
ar
cochlear
pertaining to cochlea
itis
salpingitis
inflammation of eustachian tube
otomy salpingotomy incision into eustachian tube


Word Building with labyrinth/o &

myring/o
ectomy
labyrinthectomy
removal of labyrinth
otomy
labyrinthotomy
incision into labyrinth
itis
myringitis
inflammation of eardrum
ectomy
myringectomy
removal of eardrum
plasty
myringoplasty
surgical repair of eardrum


Word Building with ot/o

algia
otalgia
ear pain
ic
otic
pertaining to ear
itis
otitis
inflammation of ear
logist
otologist
ear specialist
rrhagia
otorrhagia
bleeding from ear


Word Building with ot/o

scope
otoscope
instrument to view ear
plasty
otoplasty
surgical repair of ear
myc/o
osis
otomycosis
abnormal condition of ear

fungus
py/o
rrhea
otopyorrhea
discharge of pus from ear


Word Building with tympan/o

ic
tympanic
pertaining to eardrum
itis
tympanitis
inflammation of eardrum
meter
tympanometer
eardrum
plasty
tympanoplasty
surgical repair of eardrum
rrhexis
tympanorrhexis
ruptured eardrum
otomy
tympanotomy
incision into eardrum
ectomy
tympanectomy
removal of eardrum


Word Building with otia

macro
macrotia
large ears
micro
microtia
small ears


Ear Vocabulary
American Sign
Language
(ASL)
nonverbal method of communicating

using hands and fingers to represent
words and concepts
binaural
referring to both ears
monaural
referring to one ear
decibel (dB)
measures loudness of sound
hertz (Hz)
measures pitch of sound


Figure 13.17 Photograph of a teacher and student communicating using

American Sign Language. (Trevon Baker/Baker Consulting and Design)
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Ear Vocabulary
otorhinolaryngology
(ENT)
diagnosis and treatment of

diseases of ear, nose, and throat
presbycusis
normal loss of hearing with age
residual hearing
amount of hearing remaining after

damage has occurred
tinnitus
ringing in ears
vertigo
dizziness


Hearing Loss Pathology

anacusis
total absence of hearing; total deafness
deafness
inability to hear or having some degree of

hearing impairment


External Ear Pathology

ceruminoma
excessive accumulation of earwax

forming hard wax plug
otitis externa
(OE)
external ear infection; often by fungus;

also called otomycosis or swimmers ear


Middle Ear Pathology

otitis media
(OM)
infection of middle ear; most commonly

seen in children; watery fluid (serous otitis
media) or pus (purulent otitis media)
accumulates in middle ear cavity
otosclerosis
loss of mobility of stapes bone; leads to

hearing loss as it cannot vibrate


Otitis Media Video
Click here to view a video on otitis media.

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Inner Ear Pathology

acoustic
neuroma
benign tumor of cochlear nerve;

symptoms include tinnitus, headache,
dizziness, and hearing loss
labyrinthitis
inner ear infection; causes hearing and

equilibrium symptoms
Mnires
disease
progressive hearing loss, vertigo, and

tinnitus; causes not well understood


Audiology Tests
audiometry
test of hearing ability in regards to both

intensity and pitch person is able to
hear
use of a tuning fork placed either next

Rinne & Weber
to ear or against skull to assess both
tuning fork tests
nerve and bone conduction of sound


Figure 13.18 Audiometry exam. Photograph of a young person holding up

his hand to indicate in which ear he is able to hear the sound. (Jorgen
Shytte/Peter Arnold, Inc.)
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by Pearson
Education,Inc.
Inc.
Copyright
20092009
by Pearson
Education,
Upper Saddle
Tympanometry Video
Click here to view a video on performing tympanometry.

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Otology Tests
otoscopy
examination of ear canal and eardrum
tympanometry
measurement of movement of
tympanic membrane to asses
pressure inside middle ear


Figure 13.19 An otoscope, used to visually examine the external

auditory ear canal and tympanic membrane.
Copyright
by Pearson
Education,Inc.
Inc.
Copyright
20092009
by Pearson
Education,
Upper Saddle
Audiometry Video
Click here to view a video on audiometry.

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Balance Tests
falling test
assesses equilibrium; balancing on

one foot with eyes open and then
closed


Audiology Procedures
hearing aid
mechanical device used to amplify

sound


Surgical Treatments
cochlear
implant
mechanical device surgically placed

behind outer ear; converts sound into
magnetic impulses to stimulate auditory
nerve; treats sensorineural hearing loss
myringotomy
incision into eardrum to drain fluid

accumulated in middle ear cavity
pressure
equalizing
tube
(PE tube)
surgical placement of tube in eardrum to

allow for continuous drainage of fluid from
middle ear cavity
stapedectomy replacement of damaged stapes


Figure 13.20 Photograph of a child with a cochlear implant.

Copyright
by Pearson
Education,Inc.
Inc.
Copyright
20092009
by Pearson
Education,
Upper Saddle
Ear Pharmacology
antibiotic otic
solution
eardrops to treat otitis

externa
Neomycin,
Otocort
antiemetics
treats nausea
associated with vertigo
Antivert,
Compazine
antiinflammatory
otic solution
reduces inflammation
and itching of otitis
externa
Allergan Ear
Drops
wax
emulsifiers
softens ear wax
Debrox Drops


Ear Abbreviations
AD
right ear
AS
left ear
ASL
American Sign Language
AU
both ears
BC
bone conduction
dB
decibel
EENT
eye, ear, nose, throat
ENT
ear, nose, throat


Ear Abbreviations
HEENT head, eyes, ears, nose, throat
Hz
hertz
OM
otitis media
Oto
otology
PE tube pressure equalizing tube

PORP
partial ossicular replacement prosthesis
SOM
serous otitis media
TORP
total ossicular replacement prosthesis



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Medical Terminology

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Medical Terminology at a Glance

medical terminology is like learning a

Like piecing together a puzzle

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Understanding Medical Terms

is impossible to memorize all of the

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.1 Nurse completing a patient report. Healthcare workers use

Basic Word Parts

root is the fundamental meaning of the

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Medical Term Elements Video

Click here to view a movie introducing the parts of a medical term.

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Medical Terms Are Built from Word

cardiogram (record of the heart)

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

terms may have more than one root

medical terms built without a word root

hyper = prefix meaning excessive

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

it possible to pronounce long terms

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Combining Vowel Rules

word root and suffix

the suffix begins with a consonant

Use a combining vowel

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Combining Vowel Rules

vowel is typically kept between two

gastroenteritis, not gastrenteritis

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

used to write word roots

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Common Combining Forms

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Common Combining Forms

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

to the front of a term

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

all medical terms have a prefix

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition

Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.

without, away from

Medical Terminology: A Living Language, Fourth Edition