GOVERNMENT

ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
VALSAD

SUBJECT :- HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING (2150602)

TOPIC
:- MODULE 1 (INTRODUCTION)
GROUP NO :- 3

SUBMITTED

TO :- PROF. KULDEEP PATEL

Name of group members

No.

Name

Enrolment No.

Patel Nimesh R.

130190106036

Patel Shubham R.

130190106038

Patel Tejas R.

130190106041

Patel Yash V.

130190106044

INTRODUCTION: Introduction
Hydrologic

cycle
Processes of Hydrologic cycle
Worlds Water Resources
Indias Water Resources
Water Balance
Precipitation
Variability of precipitation
Measurement of Rainfall
Methods of calculating average rainfall over an area

INTRODUCTION: Design

of Rain gauge Network

Intensity of rainfall, Mean Annual Rainfall
Estimating missing rainfall data
Presentation of Rainfall data
Analysis of Rainfall data
Evaporation
Measurement of Evaporation
Transpiration
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration

Introduction: Hydrology

is the science which deals

with the occurance, circulation and
distribution of water upon, over and
beneath the earth surface.
It deals with the transportation,
precipitation, evaporation,
transpiration, and infiltration.

In a general sense, hydrology is very broad

subject of an interdisciplinary nature drawing
support from allied sciences such as

Metrology
Geology
Statistics
Physics
Chemistry
Fluid mechanics, etc.

study which is
concerned with
academic aspects

study concerned
with engineering
applications
It deals with
Study of process in
hydrological cycle
Study of problems
such as floods,
droughts, strategies
to combat them

Application of Hydrology
The

maximum probable flood that may occur

at given site and its frequency.
The water yield from basin-its occurance,
quantity and frequency, etc.
Ground water development.
The maximum intensity of storm and its
frequency.
Various methods of flood forecasting and
flood control.

 Selection

of suitable site for a dam,

reservoir and hydroelectric power
generation.
The capacity of storage structures such as
reservoirs.
The interaction of flood wave and
hydraulic structures like levees, reservoirs,
barrages and bridges.

Hydrological Cycle: The

hydrological cycle is a descriptive term

applied to the circulation of water from the
oceans to the atmosphere, to the ground
and back to the oceans again.
Thus, hydrological cycle is the earths water
circulation system.

Process of Hydrological
Cycle: The

hydrological cycle consist of the

following process:1. Evaporation and Transpiration
2. Precipitation
3. Runoff

Evaporation and
Transpiration
Due

to heat of sun the water from the

surface of ocean, rivers, lakes and
from the moist ground surface
evaporates.
The vapour are carried over the land
by air in the form of clouds.
This process is called evaporation.

 Transpiration

is the process of water being lost

from the leaves of the plants from their pores.

Evaporation

evaporation

(E)= surface evaporation

+ water surface evaporation
+ rivers, ponds surface
+ ocean surface evaporation
+ transpiration
+ atmospheric evaporation

Precipitation (P)
Precipitation

may be defined as the fall of

moisture from the atmosphere to the earths
surface in any form.

rainfall

Snow
Hail
Sleet
Freezing rain

Runoff (R)
Runoff

is that part of precipitation that is

not evaporated.
There are three types of runoff.
1. Surface runoff
2. Sub-surface runoff or interflow
3. Ground water flow or base flow.

Surface runoff
A

large portion of the

precipitation, left after infiltration ,
flows over the ground into the
streams and rivers, which
ultimately discharge the water to
the sea, known as surface runoff.

SUB-SURFACE RUNOFF OR
INTERFLOW
A

Portion of the precipitation

infiltrates in to soil runs as sub
surface runoff and reaches the
streams and rivers. This water is
known as Sub Surface run off or
Interflow.

GROUND WATER FLOW OR

BASE FLOW

Worlds water
Resources

Per capita availability and

utilization of water around
various countries of the world:
Worlds

total land area =1,45,000 B.m

Worlds total annual precipitation that falls on
total land
area =1,09,000 B.m
Average annual precipitation depth =0.752 m
Total land evaporation = 62,000 B.m
Average annual runoff = 47,000 B.m
Average depth of runoff = 0.324 m

Country

Per Capita average annual

Flow(m3)

Canada

1,00,00

Egypt

1,000

India

1,700

USSR

19,500

USA

9,900

China

2,400

World

7,200

 Catchment

area:
The area of draining
in to a stream or a
water course at a
given location is
known as
catchment area.
It is also called
drainage area or
drainage basin.
In USA, it is
known as
watershed.

Water balances

Water budget
equation:

The hydrologic equation is simply the statement

of the law of conservation of matter and is given
by
I = O + S
.( 1)
where,

I = inflow
O = outflow
S = change in storage, in given
time interval.

 The

expression for the water budget of a

catchment for a time interval t is written
as,
P R G E T = S
...(2)
Where, P = precipitation
R = surface runoff
G = net ground water flow out of
catchment
E = evaporation
T = transpiration
S = change in storage

Precipitation
Precipitation

may be define as the fall

of moisture from the atmosphere to
the earths surface
The water which comes back to the
surface of earth in its various forms
like rain, hail, snow, sleet, etc. is
known as precipitation.

 For

precipitation to form, it therefore

necessary to have the following favorable
conditions in the environment:
1. The atmosphere must have moisture
2. There must be sufficient nucleii present to
aid condensation over them.
3. Weather condition must be favourable to
condensation to water vapour.

Forms of precipitation

Types of pricipitation
Precipitation

is often classified according

to factors responsible for lifting.
Broadly speaking, there are four types of
precipitation.
1. Cyclonic precipitation
2. Convective precipitation
3. Orographic precipitation
4. Precipitation due to turbulent ascent

1. Cyclonic
precipitation
Cyclonic

precipitation is caused by the lifting

of an air mass due to the pressure difference.
If low pressure occurs in an area, air will flow
horizontally from the surrounding area,
causing the air in the low pressure area to lift.
The cyclonic pressure may be divide into
(a) Frontal precipitation
(b) Non-frontal precipitation

FRONTAL
PRECIPITATION :when two air masses due to
contrasting temperatures and densities
clash with each other , condensation and
precipitation occur at the surface of
contact. This surface of contact is called
frontal or frontal surface and the
precipitation is called frontal precipitation.

Different types of front is,

Cold front
Warm front
Stationary front

Non-frontal
precipitation:

In case of non- frontal precipitation,

the moist warm air mass is stationary
and the moving cold air mass meets
it. Thus, due to lightness of the warm
air mass there is passive ascent of
warm air over cold air owing to the
active under cutting. When the lifted
warm air cools down at higher
altitude precipitation occurs.

2. Convective
precipitation
Convective

precipitation is caused by
natural rising of warmer lighter air in
colder, denser surroundings.
Generally, this kind of precipitation
occurs in tropics, where on a hot day,
the ground surface gets heated
unequally, causing the warmer air to lift
up as the colder air comes to take
place.

3. Orographic
precipitation
Orographic

precipitation is caused by
moist air masse, which strike some
natural topographic barriers like
mountains, rise up causing
condensation and precipitation.
The greatest amount of precipitation
falls on the windward side, and the
leeward side often has very little
precipitation.

4. Precipitation due to
turbulent ascent:
Air

mass is forced to rise up due to greater

friction of earth surface after its travel
over ocean.
The air mass rises up because of
increased turbulence and friction, when it
ultimately condenses and precipitation
occurs.

Artificial rainfall (cloud

seeding):
Sometimes

the process of evaporation is

smoothly carried and the air has sufficient
amount of moisture, but it does not reach
the point of saturation because there is a
deficiency of hygroscopic nuclei, which are
necessary to form the raindrops.

 So
o

artificial hydroscopic nuclei are

provided in following forms:
Dry ice (solid CO2)

Silver dioxide
o Frozon carbon dioxide
o Sodium chloride etc.
The process of artificial simulation of
precipitation by adding certain chemicals
to cloud in atmosphere is known as cloud
seeding.
o

Variablity of precipitation
The

distribution of precipitation is not

uniform in a particular region.
The precipitation regime for any region
depends upon the following factors:
i. Location of region in the general circulation
pattern.
ii. The latitude.
iii.Distance from moisture source
iv.Orography of a region

Location of the region in

the general circulation
The thermal circulation originates
pattern:
from the sun as a source of origin.
About 40% of radiant energy of sun is
reflected back from upper surface of
clouds.
The earth absorbs the remaining 60%
with small losses.
This in turn increases the the heat of
the surface.

Measurement of Rainfall
The

knowledge of amount of rainfall,

intensity of rainfall and the distribution of
rainfall is extremely useful for the
irrigation engineering.
Rainfall at a place can be measured by a
rain gauge, usually in cm.

 The

following are the main types of rain gauges

used for measurement of rainfall.

Symons rain gauge:

The

symons rain gauge consist of

Metal case internal

dia.

127 mm

Base dia.
Metal casing size
Funnel with circular
rim

210 mm
600*600*600 mm
127 mm

Height of metal
305 mm above G.L.
casing

It can measure up to 12.5 cm of rainfall.

Receiving bottle
75 to 100 mm dia.

The following points should be kept in

mind while selecting the site for a raingauge station:
The

rain gauge should be an open

place
The distance between the rain gauge
and the nearest object should be at least
twice the height of the object.
The rain gauge should be at least 30m
away from the near by obstruction.
The rain gauge should never be
situated on the side or top of a hill.

I.M.D. standard rain gauge:

The

symons rain gauge was used by

Indian Metrology Department upto 1969
when the IMD standard rain gauge was
adopted.
The IMD consist collector which surface
area is either 100 cm or 200 cm .
The collector is fitted over the base which
is fixed to a concrete masonry.

IMD standard rain gauge

Weighing bucket type rain

gauge:
This

is self recording type or automatic

type rain gauge.
In weighing bucket type rain gauge, the
rain water is collected by a receiver
bucket.
The rainfall record produced by this gauge
is in the form of a mass curve of rainfall.
The mass curve gives the intensity of
rainfall.

Tipping bucket type rain

gauge:
The

tipping bucket type rain gauge consist

of two small bucket placed below the
funnel fitted in a 30 cm diameter receiver.
The buckets are so designed that when
0.25 mm of rainfall collects in one bucket,
it tips and empties its water into the
measuring tube below it.

Float type rain gauge:

The

working of float type rain gauge is

similar to the weighing bucket type rain
gauge.
A funnel receives the rain water which is
collected in rectangular, float chamber.
A float is provided at the bottom of the
float chamber.

Float type or syphon type rain

Methods of calculating
average rain fall over an
area:

The rain fall is recorded by a rain gauge

represent the rain fall at that station.
In many hydrological studies, the average
depth of rainfall over a specified area due to
a storm is required.

 The

number of rain gauge stations required

in particular climate area depends upon the
size of the catchment as given in table.
Area of catchment
sq. km

Number of rain
gauge station is
required

0 to 80
80 to 160
160 to 320
320 to 560
560 to 800
800 to 1200

1
2
3
4
5
6

Arithmetic average
method:
In

this method the average depth of

rain fall over an area is obtained by
dividing the sum of depths of rainfall
recorded at the gauge stations
located in the area by the number of
stations.

 Thus,

if P1, P2, P3, Pn are the depths of

rain fall recorded at various rain gauge
stations.
n = number of rain gauge stations

Thiessen polygon method:

This

method is better then the

arithmetic mean method which gives
equal weightage of to all the
stations.

Procedure:
1.Join

the adjacent rain gauge stations A,

B, C, D etc. by straight lines, forming
triangles.
2.Construct the perpendicular bisectors
of each of these sides of triangles.
3.A thiessen network is thus created.

 Let

P1, P2, P3, Pn are the details of rainfall

A1, A2, A3, An area represented by
various rain gauge stations.

Isohyetal method:
Isohyetal

are the contours of equal rainfall.

An isohyetal map showing contours of equal
rainfall represent a more accurate picture of
the rainfall distribution over the basin.

Estimating missing
rainfall
data: The prediction
of the missing

data can
be made with the help of available
data of nearby measuring stations,
using the following methods :

Arithmetic mean method

Normal ratio method
Inverse distance method
station-year method.

Arithmetic mean
method

Inverse distance
method
In

this method a set of rectangular

co- ordinates axes are passed
through the missing station so that
its co ordinates are (0,0). The coordinates (x,y) of each index
surrounding the missing station are
found.

STATION YEAR METHOD

In

this method , the records of two

or more rain gauge stations record
are independent and areas of
stations are climatologically the
same. The missing record at a
certain station in a particular year
may be found out by the ratio of
the average or by graphical
comparison.

Evaporation :
Due

to heat of sun the water from the

surface of ocean, rivers, lakes, and
from the moist ground surfaces
evaporates.
The vapour are carried over the land by
air in the forms of clouds.
This process is called evaporation.

U.S. weather bureau

class a pan
This

is perhaps the most commonly used

evaporation pan. The pan consists of a
shallow vessel 1.2 m dia. And 25 cm deep
the pan is made of unpainted galvanized
iron sheet. Where there is corrosion
problem, it is made of Monel sheet.
Evaporation is computed as the difference
between observed water levels on two
consecutive days. Pan coefficient is about
0.6 to 0.8 , generally taken as 0.7 .

 It

is 90 cm square
with a depth
ranging from 30
to 90 cm and
buried in the
ground within
about 10 cm of
the top. the water
should be within
2.5 cm of ground
level.
Pan coefficient is
0.75 to 0.86
generally taken as
0.78 .

COLORADO
SUNKEN PAN

 This

is 90 cm
square in plan
and 45 cm
deep pan by
drum floats in
the center of
a raft 14
*16 .
The pan
coefficient is
generally
taken as 0.80 .

U.S.
GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY
FLOATING
PAN

TRANSPIRATION

FACTORS AFFECTING
TRANSPIRATION
All

the factors that affect the

evaporation from the free water surface
also affect transpiration, that is follows:
temperature of air
wind velocity
atmosphere pressure
humidity
solar radiation
soil moisture
physiologic factors

Daltons law of
evaporation:
According

to Daltons law The rate of

evaporation depends upon the difference
between the saturation vapour pressure and
the vapour pressure in the air above.

where E = evaporation loss (mm/day)

C = coefficient

Factors Affecting
Evaporation :

Nature of evaporating surface

Measurement of
evaporation
:

The rate of evaporation from large

water surfaces can be determined
by following methods :

Pan measurement
method :
The

most reliable method for the

estimating of evaporation from large
water bodies is that by
measurements from evaporation
pans.
Different shapes of pans have been
designed by different designers, and
different values of pan coefficient
have been suggested.

 The

more important of these pans are

described below.

Using Empirical
formula
Evaporation

from lakes and reservoirs

is usually estimated by empirical
methods based on metrological data.
There are a number of empirical
formulae available in the literature.
Most of these equations are based on
Daltons law of evaporation.

1. mayer formula
It

states that

Where, E = evaporation (mm/day)

es = saturation vapour pressure
ea = actual vapour pressure
V9 = mean wind velocity at 9 m
above G.L.
km = coefficient

2. Rohwers Formula :
It

states that

Lake Hefner formula :

It

states that

WATER BUDGET
METHOD

Evapotranspiration :
Evapotranspiration

is the sum of the water

lost to the atmosphere by the plants
through transpiration, and the water
evaporated from the soil or water body
surrounding the plant.
Evapotranspiration = Evaporation
+Transpiration

 If

sufficient moisture is always available to

completely meet the needs of the plants,
the resulting evapotranspiration is called
Potential evapotranspiration (PET).
The real evapotranspiration occuring in a
specific situation is called Actual
evapotranspiration.

Factors affecting
evapotranspiration

Measurement of
evapotranspiration
(consumptive use) :

Tank

and lysimeter
method
Field experimental
plots
Inflow and out flow
studies

Penman

method
Jensen-Haise
method
Hargreaves method
Blaney-criddle
method

Penmans method :
For

shorter periods, it is necessary to use

calculation methods to estimate
evapotranspiration.
This can done by penmens method. The
penmans equation is a equation is a
combination of energy balance and wind
transfer approach, which reads:

Where,
PET = daily potential
evapotranspiration
A = slope of the saturation
pressure versus
temperature
curve at mean air
temperature
Hn = net incoming solar radiation
(mm/day)
Ea = Parameter including wind
velocity and
saturation deficit.
= Psychometric constant

Infiltration :
Infiltration

may be defined as the

downward movement of water from
soil surface, into the soil mass
through the pores of the soil.
The process of downward movement
of water into soil, once water enters
into the soil, is known as percolation.

 The

maximum rate at which a soil in any

given condition is capable of absorbing
water is called its infiltration capacity.
The infiltration rate at any instant is the rate
at which water actually enters the soil
during a storm and is equal to the
infiltration capacity or rainfall rate,
whichever is less.

Factors affecting
infiltration:

Hortons equation :
The

maximum rate at which the soil in

any given condition is capable of
absorbing water is called its infiltration
capacity.
Infiltration often begins at a high rate (20
to 25 cm/hr) and decreases to a fairly
steady state rate as the rain continues,
called ultimate fp.

Green Ampt method :