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In this series of lectures we will be dealing with welding of steels and some of the
non-ferrous metals, namely aluminium, magnesium and titanium.
Welding of steel can be viewed as a steel making and/or casting process at a miniature
scale.
Therefore, issues such as slag formation due to oxidation, loss of alloying elements due
to oxidation, shrinkage porosity, gas holes due to entrapped gases, residual stresses and
cracks due to thermal contractions etc. are all of our concerns during welding.
Furthermore, grain size and morphology are also matters that need to be considered
as in casting.
In all welds, in addition to the weld seam itself there exist a neighbouring zone called
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) where microstructural changes in the welded part can occur.
HAZ of steel welds are particularly important as a detrimental phase transformation into
martensite can happen. Furthermore, formation of retained austenite creates additional
danger in terms of reliability of the weld under varying service conditions.
Preheating
Stress Relieving
and when heated and contract when cooled. The amount of expansio
portional to the amount of heat applied. In a weldment, the metal clos
subjected to the highest temperature, and as the distance from the w
the maximum temperature reached decreases. This nonuniform heat
nuniform expansion and contraction and can cause distortion and inte
thin the weldment. Depending on its composition and usage, the met
able to resist these stresses and cracking or early failure of the part
minimize these stresses or to relieve them is by uniformly heating th
been welded. The metal is heated to temperatures just below the poi
ure change would occur and then it is cooled at a slow rate.
Principles of Electricity
ode (conductor) is either melted and added to the base metal or rem
. All arc welding utilizes the transfer of electrical energy to heat energ
d this principle, a basic knowledge of electricity and welding power so
.
Since we know that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the tendency is
for the electrons to move from a position of over-supply (negative charge) to an atom that
lacks electrons (positive charge). This tendency becomes reality when a suitable path is
provided for the movement of the electrons. The transfer of electrons from a negative to a
positive charge throughout the length of a conductor constitutes an electrical current. The
rate that current flows through a conductor is measured in amperes and the word ampere
is often used synonymously with the term current. To give an idea of the quantities of
electrons that flow through a circuit, it has been theoretically established that one ampere
equals 6.3 quintillion (6,300,000,000,000,000,000) electrons flowing past a fixed point in a
conductor every second.
The theory of electrical resistance is of great importance in the arc welding
process for it is this resistance in the air space between the electrode and the base metal
that contributes to the transfer of electrical energy to heat energy. As voltage forces the
electrons to move faster, the energy they generate is partially used to overcome the
resistance created by the arc gap. This energy becomes evident as heat. In the welding
process, the temperature increases to the point where it brings metals to a molten state.
Electrical Power
voltage that comes into your home is a constant factor, but the ampe
m the utility company depends on the number of watts required to run
appliance. The watt is figured as a product of volts times amperes and
thematically with the following equation:
W =E I E = W I I = W E
(W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)
Power Generation
energy is supplied either as direct current (DC) or alternating current (
current, the electron movement within the conductor is in one directi
ating current, the electron flow reverses periodically.
ome types of electrical generators will produce current directly (such
dry cells, or DC generators), most direct current is developed from alt
This illustrates that three-phase power is smoother than single-phase because the
overlapping three phases prevent the current and voltage from falling to zero 120 times
a second, thereby producing a smoother welding arc.
Since all shops do not have three-phase power, welding machines for both
single-phase and three-phase power are available.
Transformers
on of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltage to a safe value
demand. Common household voltage is usually 115 or 230 volts, wh
ower requirements may be 208, 230, 380, or 460 volts.
The transformer in a welding machine performs much the same as a large power
plant transformer. The primary voltage coming into the machine is too high for safe
welding. Therefore, it is stepped down to a useable voltage. This is best illustrated with an
explanation of how a single transformer works.
In the preceding paragraphs, we have stated than an electrical current can be
induced into a conductor when that conductor is moved through a magnetic field to
produce alternating current. If this alternating current is passed through a conductor, a
pulsating magnetic field will surround the exterior of that conductor.
If that conductor is wound around a material with high magnetic permeability
(magnetic permeability is the ability to accept large amounts of magnetic lines of force)
such as steel, the magnetic field permeates that core (see the next Figure).
The first conductor is called the primary coil, and if voltage is applied to one of its terminals
and the circuit is completed, current will flow. This current creates a magnetic field in the
steel core (which is easily magnetized due to its high magnetic permeability) and if we now
wind another conductor to the same steel core at the other end, a current will be created in
this second conductor. Because the build-up and collapse of the magnetic field in the steel
core will excite the electrons in the secondary coil of the transformer. This electrical
current will be of the same frequency as the primary coil to flow when the secondary circuit
is completed by striking the welding arc. The change in the voltage will depend on the
number of windings of the first and the second coils.
Remember that no current (amperage) flows until the welding circuit is completed by
striking the arc.
Now we can further control the voltage and amperage values by using an output controller
which works simply according to the Ohms law.
Theoretically, a variable resistor of the proper value could be used as an output control
since voltage is inversely proportional to resistance as we saw when studying Ohm's Law.
Ohm's Law also stated that the amperage is directly proportional to the voltage.
This being so, you can see that adjusting the output control will also adjust the amperage
or welding current.
Rectifying AC to DC
The function of a rectifier in the circuit can best be shown by the use of the
AC sine wave. With one diode in the circuit, half-wave rectification takes place as shown
in Figure below.
The negative half-wave is simply cut off and a pulsating DC is produced. During
the positive half-cycle, current is allowed to flow through the rectifier. During the negative
half-cycle, the current is blocked. This produces a DC composed of 60 positive pulses per
second.
Arc length plays an important part in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes,
just as it does in welding with a coated electrode. However, when using a constant voltage
power source and a wire feeder that delivers the wire at a constant speed, arc length
caused by operator error, plate irregularities, and puddle movement are automatically
compensated for by the characteristics of this process. To understand this, keep in mind
that with the proper voltage setting, amperage setting, and arc length, the rate that the wire
melts is dependent upon the amperage. If the amperage decreases, this melt-off rate
decreases and if the amperage increases, so does the melt-off rate.
In Figure below, we see that condition #2 produces the desired arc length, voltage,
and amperage. If the arc length is increased as in #1, the voltage increases slightly;
the amperage decreases considerably, and therefore, the melt-off rate of the wire
decreases.
The wire is now feeding faster than it is melting off. This condition will advance the end
of the wire towards the work piece until the proper arc length is reached where again,
the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate. If the arc length is decreased as in #3, the
voltage drops off slightly, the amperage is increased considerably, and the melt-off rate
of the wire increases. Since the wire is now melting off faster than it is being fed, it
melts back to the proper arc length where the melt-off rate equals the feeding rate.
This is often referred to as a self-adjusting arc. These automatic corrections take place
in fractions of a second, and usually without the operator being aware of them.
There are a variety of different welding machines, each with its own unique
internal design. Our purpose is not to detail the function of each part of the machine,
but to emphasize that their main difference is in the way they control the voltage and
amperage output.
Types of Welding Power Sources
A great variety of welding power sources are being built today for electric arc welding
and we shall mention some of the major types briefly. Welding power sources can be
divided into two main categories: static types and rotating types.
Static Types - Static type power sources are all of those that use commercially
generated electrical power to energize a transformer that, in turn, steps the line voltage
down to useable welding voltages. The two major categories of static power sources
are the transformer type and the rectifier type.
The transformer type produce only alternating current. They are commonly
called "Welding Transformers." All AC types utilize single-phase primary power and are
of the constant current type.
The rectifier types are commonly called "Welding Rectifiers" and produce DC or,
AC and DC welding current. They may utilize either single phase or three phase input
power. They contain a transformer, but rectify the AC or DC by the use of selenium
rectifiers, silicon diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers. Available in either the constant
current or the constant voltage type, some manufacturers offer units that are a
combination of both and can be used for coated electrode welding, non-consumable
electrode welding and for welding with solid or flux cored wires.
INTRODUCTION
After much experimentation by others in the early 1800's, an Englishman named Wilde
obtained the first electric welding patent in 1865. He successfully joined two small pieces
of iron by passing an electric current through both pieces producing a fusion weld.
Approximately twenty years later, Bernado, a Russian, was granted a patent for an
electric arc welding process in which he maintained an arc between a carbon electrode
and the pieces to be joined, fusing the metals together as the arc was manually passed
over the joint to be welded.
During the 1890's, arc welding was accomplished with bare metal electrodes that
were consumed in the molten puddle and became part of the weld metal. The welds
were of poor quality due to the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere forming harmful
oxides and nitrides in the weld metal. Early in the Twentieth Century, the importance of
shielding the arc from the atmosphere was realized. Covering the electrode with a
material that decomposed in the heat of the arc to form a gaseous shield appeared to be
the best method to accomplish this end. As a result, various methods of covering
electrodes, such as wrapping and dipping, were tried. These efforts culminated in the
extruded coated electrode in the mid-1920's, greatly improving the quality of the weld
metal and providing what many consider the most significant advance in electric arc
welding.
Since welding with coated electrodes is a rather slow procedure, more rapid
welding processes were later developed.
To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece in a
short sweeping motion and then pulled away slightly, with a movement like lighting a
match. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable
electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the
weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off vapors that
protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the
weld pool. Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead
shape.
Initially part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the
finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must
periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new
electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag,
reduce the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one
of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage
of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.
3. Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great,
AC is the best choice since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with
DC. Even though welding cables are made of copper or aluminum (both good
conductors), the resistance in the cables becomes greater as the cable length
increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken between the electrode and the
work will be somewhat lower than a reading taken at the output terminals of the
power source. This is known as voltage drop.
4. Welding Position (See Appendix A - Glossary of Terms) - Because DC may be
operated at lower welding currents, it is more suitable for overhead and vertical
welding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-position work if proper
electrodes are selected.
5. Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the
weldment. In weldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic
field can affect the arc by making it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is
especially troublesome when welding in corners. AC seldom causes this problem
because of the rapidly reversing magnetic field produced.
The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the
workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and
welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator
skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits
higher welding speeds. Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator
skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the
molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally means that the
electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.
Quality
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter,
porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking. Weld spatter, while not affecting
the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. It can be
caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition associated with
direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool
by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint
contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when lowhydrogen electrodes are used. Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced
nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern because it can potentially weaken
the weld.
Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though it is often easily
visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an
improper electrode.
Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by
decreasing welding speed, increasing the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of
these weld-strength related defects can make the weld prone to cracking, but other
factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can
lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed.
Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces
residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools and contracts.
Power supply
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current
(and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage
change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual, requiring
that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not
maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary
the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being
used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged
electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the electrode, increasing the electrode
melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the polarity so that the
electrode is positively charged and the workpiece is negatively charged increases the
weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per
second, creating an even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode
melting rate and penetration.
Electrode negative (-) produces welds with shallow penetration; however, the
electrode melt-off rate is high. The weld bead is rather wide and shallow as
shown at "A" in the Figure above.
Electrode positive (+) produces welds with deep penetration and a narrower
weld
Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for
direct current models a rectifier, for converting alternating current into direct current.
Because the power normally supplied to the welding machine is high-voltage alternating
current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and increase the current.
As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the transformer
is around 1745 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers
can be used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with
each using a different method to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type
adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type
transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary coils
(in movable coil or movable core transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus
more portable, use electronic components to change the current characteristics.
Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding power
supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used
in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of the complexities of
using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler:
the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC.
However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often
must be done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable
because there is no power source available to be transformed.
Electrodes
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld
material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a
metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld
contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to
form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality
Electrodes can be divided into three groupsthose designed to melt quickly are called
"fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes,
and intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes.
Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be
maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making
welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting
significantly before solidifying.
The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that
of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight
difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld.
This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise, electrodes of
compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous
materials like aluminum and copper. However, sometimes it is desirable to use
electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base material. For example,
stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and
are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.
To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that
assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or
low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of
the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand
pounds per square inch (ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding
positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze
electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying
horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified
by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying
element being contributed by the electrode.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable
tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert gas such as
argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of
highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and
light metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process
grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing procedures
such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for
stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more
complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower
than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding,
uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc
and as a result is often automated.
Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic
operation. In
manual operation, the welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc
into the weld joint.
The filler metal is fed manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In
automatic applications, the torch may be automatically moved over a
stationary work piece or the torch may be stationary with the work moved or
rotated in relation to the torch. Filler metal, if required, is also fed
automatically.
Power Sources - Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten
arc
welding. They are the constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere
curve. This type of power source produces very slight changes in the arc
current when the arc length (voltage) is varied.
The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness
of the
metal to be welded. Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc
characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the polarity also becomes an important
factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite the effects of
polarity in SMAW.
In SMAW, the distribution of heat between the electrode and work, which
determines the penetration and weld bead width, is controlled mainly by the
ingredients in the
flux coating on the electrode. In GTAW where no flux coating exists, heat
distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled solely by the
Aluminum and magnesium are two metals that have a heavy oxide coating
that acts
as an insulator and must be removed before successful welding can take
place. Welding with electrode positive provides a good oxide cleaning action
in the arc. If we were to study the physics of the welding arc, we find that the
electric current causes the shielding gas atoms to lose some of their
electrons. Since electrons are negatively charged, these gas atoms now are
unbalanced and have an excessive positive charge.
Unlike charges attract. These positively charged atoms (or positive ions as
they are known in chemical terminology) are attracted to the negative pole,
in this case the work, at high velocity. Upon striking the work surface, they
dislodge the oxide coating permitting good electrical conductivity for the
maintenance of the arc, and eliminate the impurities in the weld metal that
could be caused by these oxides.
Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas tungsten arc
welding. In some applications, mixtures of the two gases prove
advantageous.
To a lesser extent, hydrogen is mixed with argon or helium for special
applications.
Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both
are
inert gases, which means that they do not readily combine with other
elements. They will not burn nor support combustion. Commercial grades
used for welding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38% heavier than air and about
10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize when present in an electric
arc. This means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a
negative charge. These unbalanced gas atoms, properly called positive ions,
now have a positive charge and are attracted to the negative pole in the arc.
When the arc is positive and the work is negative, these positive ions impinge
Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting
and
ease of use make it most desirable for manual welding.
Argon produces a better cleaning action when welding aluminum and
magnesium with alternating current. The arc produced is relatively narrow.
Argon is more suitable for welding thinner material.
At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc voltage than argon. Since
welding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces more
available heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for welding heavy
sections of metal that have high heat conductivity, or for automatic welding
operations where higher welding speeds are required.
Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications where higher heat input
and the
desirable characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively
heavy gas, blankets the weld area at lower flow rates. Argon is preferred for
many applications because it costs less than helium.
Summary - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is one of the major welding processes
today. The quality of the welds produced and the ability to weld very thin
metals are the major features. The weld metal quality is high since no flux is
used, eliminating the problem of slag inclusions in the weld metal. It is used
extensively in the aircraft and aerospace industry, where high quality welds
are necessary and also for welding the more expensive metals where the
weld defects become very costly. Metals as thin as .005" can be welded due
to the ease of controlling the current.
The major disadvantages of the process are that it is slower than welding
with
consumable electrodes and is little used on thicknesses over 1/4" for this
reason. Shielding gas and tungsten electrode costs make the process
relatively expensive.