CHAPTER 6

Testing Machines and

Instruments

6.1 Types of Testing Machines

Loads are applied to test specimens by

means of testing machines in the
laboratory
Important parts of a testing machine are;
(1) a means for applying load to a specimen
(2) a means for measuring the applied load.

Types of testing machines-2

Screw gear (mechanical) machines: The load may
be applied by mechanical means, through the
use of screw-gear mechanisms.
Hydraulic machines: The load is applied by means
of a hydraulic jack or press.
The power may be supplied by hand or by some
prime mover (usually an electric motor),
depending on the design of the machine and its
capacity.
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crosshead

Types of testing machines-3

1. Some machines are designed for one kind of test:
Tension machines: for testing reinforcement and wire
Compression machines: for testing concrete
specimens.
2. Universal testing machine (UTM): is designed to test
specimens in both tension and compression. UTMs
can be used to perform flexure, shear, hardness and
other tests by means of approximate attachments.
There are also special machines for torsion,
hardness, impact, fatigue, cold bending etc.

General Requirements for TMs

The required accuracy must be sustained

throughout the loading range; errors are ordinarily
required to be less than 1 percent, but 0.5
percent or less is desirable.
The machine should be sensitive to small load
changes, that is, precise.
Jaws or beds in the crossheads should be in
alignment.
Moveable heads should not rock, twist, or shift
laterally.
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General Requirements for TMs

Load application should be uniform, controllable, and

capable of considering range in speed.
The machine should be free from excessive vibration.
The recoil mechanism should be adequate to absorb
energy of rupture or pieces breaking suddenly, so as
to avoid injury to the machine when loading.
The machine should be capable of easy and rapid
manipulation and adjustments should permit easy
access to specimens and strainometers.

6.2 Measurement of Load by:

Hydraulic

devices
Mechanical devices
Electrical devices

Hydraulic Devices

Liquid pressure-meters manometers or bourbon tubes.

Manometer: is simply a glass tube, usually placed vertically, in
which a liquid (say, mercury) can rise to a level at which it
balances the applied pressure; the level of the liquid is read
from a graduated scale. Manometer is limited to the
measurement of relatively low pressures.
Bourbon tube: is a closed-end curved metal tube that tends to
straighten out as the pressure is increased in the liquid in the
tube. On the usual bourdon gage the motion of the end of the
tube is mechanically magnified to rotate a pointer over a scale.
The accuracy of the ordinary bourdon gage may be
considerably affected by temperature changes and the friction of
its moving parts.

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Interconnected hydraulic devices may be used to step

down the load.
The hydraulic cylinder has two marked disadvantages
when used in load-weighing systems: the leakage
of the liquid in loosely fitted pistons and the variable
friction on the piston when packing is used.
The hydraulic capsule, which operates without
appreciable friction, has proved to be a very
satisfactory means of transmitting load.
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Mechanical Devices
Dynamometers: are transducers by means of
which power output or power transmission can
be measured. Because the mechanical
measurement of power usually resolves itself
into the determination of a force, the term
dynamometer is often applied to self-contained
load measuring instruments.
Many dynamometers utilize the deformation or
deflection of an elastic member as the basis for
determining the force applied to the device.
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Mechanical Devices-2
In materials testing, two types of dynamometers
are used:
One type is a spring balance made with a closely
wounded helical spring that can be used directly
to measure the loads on a small specimen or
can be used in conjunction with a multiple lever
or hydraulic transmission system.
In the other type, instead of a helical spring, the
elastic deflection of a beam, frame, or ring may
be used to measure load.
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Electric Devices
The load on a specimen is translated into an
electric signal capable of actuating some kind of
electronic readout or control.
This is accomplished by using load cells consisting
of an elastic device to which electric-resistance
strain gages have been permanently attached.
Such load cells have the additional advantage of
being able to monitor high-frequency dynamicload applications.
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6.3 Static Testing Machines

Most testing machines are designed to
impart a constant or gradually varying
load to a specimen.
Static tension,
hardness,
compression,
creep,
shear,
bending
These tests may be performed by UTMs.
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In a mechanical machine the load is applied to a specimen

through the moveable crosshead which in most machines
moves upward or downward during a test.
In the case of a specimen in tension, the load is resisted by
crossheads having jaws, which may be placed in various
positions.
In compression test, the load is resisted by the bed or platen
of the machine.
In a hydraulic machine the load is applied by the movement of
the piston of the hydraulic system, which is connected either
to the platen of the machine or to a moveable crosshead.
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Electronic
load cell
Load dial
Crosshead moving
downward during
test

Controls

Space for
compression test
Apparatus for
flexural tensile test

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The capacities of screw-gear machines are generally less than

1500 kN.
The hydraulic machines offer a means of attaining very large
capacities. A number of testing machines ranging from 150 kN to
20 MN are in use. There are also small testers with capacities as
low as 5kN.
In the modern hydraulic machine the load can be applied easily,
with little noise or vibration, and with good control of the loading
rate.
Most hydraulic machines are equipped with load indicating dials
or digital indicating systems for displaying loads. Many machines
have a built-in recorder to generate a plot of load vs. deformation
or strain. Strain measurement will be discussed further.
Sophisticated speed adjustment controllers are also attached to
the testing machines.

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6.4 Cyclic Loading Machines

For some tests, machines must be able not
only to exert a constant or gradually
varying load, but also to change the load
according to some predetermined
pattern.
Machines (normally hydraulic type) that
can cycle a load are called dynamic
testing machines.
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6.4 Cyclic Loading Machines-2

In cyclic loading, a test is often started by
applying a static load, which is then
cyclically varied. This variation is made
possible by a servo valve that controls the
flow of fluid from one side of the piston to
the other.

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6.5 Accessories
In

addition to the basic machines described,

various accessories are needed for testing.
These include devices that grip or support
all manner of specimens, and fixtures that
allow other axial loading conditions.
Displacement and strain-measuring
instruments, which will be discussed in
Chapter 7 are also needed.
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Accessories-2
Grips (jaws) are needed to support flat or round,
threaded or button-ended specimens. The grips
may be accommodated in closed or semi-open
crossheads.
Special fixtures include those for flexure tests,
which utilize a base with two supports and a
loading device to provide one or two
concentrated loads

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Accessories-3
There are fixtures that allow various direct shear tests,
and others that permit a compression machine to be
used as a hardness tester. Other devices
accommodate special tests such as compression
tests on concrete cylinders and on cubes of various
sizes; cylinder splitting tests; test on bricks, blocks,
and other masonry units; guided weld test; tension
tests of wires and cables; cold-bending test of
reinforcing bars, and the like.
Environmental chambers are available that surround
the specimen and subject it to extremely low or high
temperatures or to other environmental conditions.
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TASK
Take photos and describe the accessories
used in the test machines in our
laboratory.

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6.6 Instruments

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6.6.1 Linear Measurements

Laboratory testing work often requires linear measurements,
such as in determining the dimensions of the specimens.
Various instruments are available that improve the accuracy
and precision of the readings by reducing human error.
Reading a graduated scale consists of estimating the
position of some mark along the scale. Unless the eye,
the mark and the correct position line up, a parallax error
might result. Parallax may be eliminated by:
Edge coincidence principle
Mirror-scale principle
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Edge-coincidence
Edge coincidence; the mark is made to lie in the
plane of the scale graduations.

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Mirror scale
Mirror-scale; when the
pointer appears to
coincide with its
image, the line of
sight through the
pointer is
perpendicular to the
scale and mirror.

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Vernier Caliper
While measuring by a steel tape, precision is subject to the
limitations of eyesight. The least reading of a scale depends
on the spacing of the graduated marks. For greater
refinement in reading fractions of a division, a vernier may
be used.
Measurement of the distance between two points can be made
directly by a graduated steel scale or tape, the distance
between opposite surfaces of a solid object is best
determined by using a caliper.
The direct use of a graduated scale yields results of limited
precision, because the practical least reading of a scale with
the unaided eye is about 0.25 mm. With a vernier caliper the
precision can be improved to about 0.05 mm.

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How to read a Vernier Caliper?

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Micrometers
If finer measurements are needed, a
micrometer may be used. A micrometer is
simply an instrument for giving a magnified
indication of small distances.
In many micrometers, the distance is in
effect transversed by some moving part
and the resulting movement is magnified
and measured.
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Screw micrometer caliper

Digital micrometer caliper

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Reading a micrometer
The longitudinal line on the frame is
graduated with 1 mm divisions and 0.5
millimetre subdivisions. The thimble has
50 graduations, each being 0.01
millimetre (one-hundredth of a
millimetre). To read a metric micrometer,
note the number of millimetre divisions
visible on the scale of the sleeve, and
add the total to the particular division on
the thimble which coincides with the
axial line on the sleeve.
Suppose that the thimble were screwed out
so that graduation 5, and one additional
0.5 subdivision were visible (as shown
in the image), and that graduation 28 on
the thimble coincided with the axial line
on the sleeve. The reading then would
be 5.00 +0.5 +0.28 = 5.78 mm.

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6.6.2 Determination of Displacement

Various

devices called deformeters are used

to measure deformations or displacements,
that is, changes in length (or angle) rather
than the length (or angle) itself.
(extensometers and compressometers).
The instruments described in this chapter are
the instruments measuring the linear strains,
e.g., strainometers
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a. Mechanical Devices
Dial indicators are instruments used to accurately
measure a small distance. They may also be
known as a dial gauge, dial Test Indicator (DTI), or
as a "clock".
Dial indicators may be used to measure the deflection
of a beam or expansion/shrinkage measurements,
as well as many other situations where a small
measurement is needed.
Typical travel length of dial gage is 10 mm.
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Probe Indicators
Probe indicators typically consist of a graduated dial and needle
to record the minor increments, with a smaller embedded
clock face and needle to record the number of needle
rotations on the main dial.
Least measurements between 0.01 mm down to 0.001 mm are
generally used.
The probe (or plunger) moves perpendicular to the object being
tested by either retracting or extending from the indicators
body.
Probe indicators may either be mechanical or digital. In order to
obtain linear strains, dial indicators or or other devices for
measuring small displacements may be attached to fixtures
that allow the measurement of deformation along a gage line
over a specific gage length.

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Extensometers-1
One type of the
strainometer is collar
extensometer or
compressometer.
This apparatus is
frequently used on
concrete cylinders in
compression.

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Extensometers-2
Lateral strains are also determined by
means of lateral strainometers to obtain
Poissons ratio.

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b. Optical Devices
Beams of light are used for
magnification, Martens
extensometer and
Tuckermans optical strain
gage are such kind of
extensometers. There are
also optical comparators
which observe the
deformations of specimens
under environmental
conditions.

Optical comparator

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Video extensometer is a device that is capable of

performing strain measurements of certain materials, by
capturing continuous images of the specimen during
test, using a frame grabber or a digital video camera
attached to a PC.
The specimen of the material under test is usually cut in a
specific shape and is marked with special markers
The pixel distance between these markers in the captured
image are constantly tracked in the captured video, while
the specimen under test is stretched / compressed.

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c. Electrical Devices
Devices based on electrical principles are useful in that
they are responsive to dynamic deformations and allow
automatic recording of results.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is an
electromechanical device that provides an output
voltage proportional to a displacement.
They are used for measuring and controlling strain in
tension, compression, static and dynamic tests. They
also measure displacements such as crack openings in
fracture mechanics tests.
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6.6.3 Electric Strain Gages

Deformeters (extensometers and
compressometers) are used to obtain
strains by dividing deformations by gage
lengths. There are devices that allow
strains to be obtained directly.
One such device is the electric resistance
strain gage.
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Electric resistance of a given wire is a function of the strain to

which it is subjected, tensile strains usually increasing the
resistance and compressive strains decreasing it. For straingage work it is common to express the change in resistance
in terms of the change in strain, which gives a ratio called
the strain sensitivity or gage factor (K), the strain is
expressed as:
R

RK
Where; R : resistance change in the total gage resistance R.
The strain sensitivity is markedly influenced by the type of
resistance wire.

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The sensitive elements are made up of a continuous

length of wire looped back and forth so that all the
loops are in the same plane. The wire is then cemented
to paper, plastic, or another type backing material.

The advantages of bonded electric resistance strain gages,

compared to mechanical gages are;
1. Ease of installation,
2. Relatively high accuracy,
3. Adjustable sensitivity,
4. Remote indication (making possible the observation of
strains at distant, inaccessible points),
5. Very short gage lengths,
6. Measurement of strain at the surface of the test member,
7. Response to dynamic strain.

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