Unit II Modulation and Signal Processing

UNIT-IV
MODULATION & SIGNAL PROCESSING

Analog and digital modulation techniques,
Performance of various modulation techniques
Spectral efficiency, Error rate, Power Amplification,
Equalization/Rake receiver concepts,
Diversity and Space-time processing,
Speech coding and channel coding.
2002 Pearson Education, Inc. Commercial use, distribution, or sale prohibited.
Modulation Techniques for

Mobile Radio
Analog and Digital Modulation,

Line Coding, AM/FM/SSB
General structure of a communication system

Info.
Receive
d
Receive
info.
User
r
Transmitter
Formatter
Source
encoder
Channel
encoder
Modulator
Receiver
Formatter
Lecture 1
Source
decoder
Channel
decoder
4
Demodulator
Source
SOURCE
Nois
Transmitted e
Receive
signal
d
Transmitter
Channe signal
l
Learning fundamental issues in designing a

digital communication system (DCS):
Formatting and source coding

Modulation (Baseband and bandpass signaling)
Channel coding
Equalization
Synchronization
....
Design goals
Trade-off between various parameters
5
Utilized techniques
Digital Fundamentals:
The Sampling Theorem, Nyquist
Sampling
Key Digital Modulation

Techniques:
BPSK, OFDM, GMSK
Spread Spectrum:
DS-SS, FH-SS, Coding Gain,
Fading Margins
Amplitude Modulation
Double Sideband Spectrum
SSB Modulators
Tone-in Band SSB
Product Detection
VCO circuit
Wideband FM generation
Slope Detector for FM
Digital Demod for FM
PLL Demod for FM
Phase-shift quadrature FM demod
FM Demod circuit
Line Coding spectra
RZ and NRZ Line Codes
Nyquist Pulses for zero-ISI
Raised Cosine Spectrum
Spectrum of Raised Cosine pulse
Raised Cosine pulses
RF signal usig Raised Cosine
Gaussian pulse-shapes
BPSK constellation
Virtue of pulse shaping
BPSK Coherent demodulator
Differential PSK encoding
DPSK modulation
DPSK receiver
QPSK constellation diagrams
Virtues of Pulse Shaping
QPSK modulation
QPSK receiver
Offset QPSK waveforms
Pi/4 QPSK signaling
Pi/4 QPSK phase shifts
Pi/4 QPSK transmitter
Differential detection of pi/4 QPSK
IF Differential Detection
FM Discriminator detector
FSK Coherent Detection
Noncoherent FSK
Minimum Shift Keying spectra
MSK modulation
MSK reception
GMSK spectral shaping
GMSK spectra shaping
Simple GMSK generation
GMSK Demodulator
Digital GMSK demodulator
8-PSK Signal Constellation
Bandwidth vs. Power Efficiency
Pulse Shaped M-PSK
16-QAM Signal Constellation
QAM efficiencies
M-ary FSK efficiencies
PN Sequence Generator
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spreading
Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum
CDMA Multiple Users
Effects of Fading
Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to multipath
Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to

multipath
Simulation of Fading and Multipath
Irreducible BER due to fading
Irreducible BER due to fading
BER due to fading & multipath
Outline
Hamming Code Revisit

ReedMuller code
Cyclic Code
CRC Code
BCH Code
RS Code
Term paper
Diversity
Linear Code
Three techniques are used independently or in tandem to improve

receiver signal quality
Equalization compensates for ISI created by multipath with time
dispersive channels (W>BC)
Change the overall response to remove ISI
Diversity also compensates for fading channel impairments, and is
usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas
Multiple received copies: Spatial diversity, antenna polarization
diversity, frequency diversity, time diversity.
Reduces the depth and duration of the fades experienced by a
receiver in a flat fading (narrowband) channel
Channel Coding improves mobile communication link performance by
adding redundant data bits in the transmitted message
Channel coding is used by the Rx to detect or correct some (or all)
of the errors introduced by the channel (Post detection technique)
Block code and convolutional code
Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
Deep Fading
Channel Coding
Overcoming Channel
Impairments
Requires no training overhead

Can provides significant link improvement with little added
cost
Diversity decisions are made by the Rx, and are unknown
to the Tx
Diversity concept
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent
path may have a strong signal
By having more than one path to select from, both the
instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may be
improved, often by as much as 20 dB to 30 dB
Diversity order
How many independent copies
How many links to bring down the system
Diversity Techniques
EQUALIZATION,
DIVERSITY &
CODING
DIVERSITY
I. Introduction
1) ACI/CCI system generated interference

2) Shadowing large-scale path loss from LOS obstructions
3) Multipath Fading rapid small-scale signal variations
4) Doppler Spread due to motion of mobile unit
All can lead to significant distortion or attenuation of Rx signal
Degrade Bit Error Rate (BER) of digitally

modulated signal
79
MRC Impairments:
1) Equalization
2) Diversity
3) Channel Coding
Used independently or together
We will consider Diversity and Channel Coding
80
Three techniques are used to improve Rx

signal quality and lower BER:
Effectiveness of each varies widely in

practical wireless systems
Cost & complexity are also important issues
Complexity in mobile vs. in base station
81
These techniques improve mobile radio

link performance
III. Diversity Techniques
Diversity : Primary goal is to reduce depth &

duration of small-scale fades
Use multiple Rx antennas in mobile or base station
Why would this be helpful?
Even small antenna separation ( ) changes phase of

signal constructive /destructive nature is changed
Other diversity types polarization, frequency, &

time
82
Spatial or antenna diversity most common
Goal is to make use of several independent

(uncorrelated) received signal paths
Why is this necessary?
Select path with best SNR or combine

multiple paths improve overall SNR
performance
83
Exploits random behavior of MRC
Most widely used

Use multiple antennas separated in space
At a mobile, signals are independent if separation > /
2
But it is not practical to have a mobile with multiple
antennas separated by / 2 (7.5 cm apart at 2 GHz)
Can have multiple receiving antennas at base stations,
but must be separated on the order of ten wavelengths
(1 to 5 meters).
84
Microscopic diversity combat small-scale

fading
85
Since reflections occur near receiver, independent

signals spread out a lot before they reach the base
station.
a typical antenna configuration for 120 degree sectoring.
For each sector, a transmit antenna is in the center, with
two diversity receiving antennas on each side.
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal.
By having more than one path one select from, both the
instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may be
improved
Spatial or Antenna Diversity 4 basic types

M independent branches
Variable gain & phase at each branch G
Each branch has same average SNR:
Instantaneous SNR i
1
p( i ) e
Eb
SNR
N0
, the pdf of i
i 0 (6.155)
1
Pr i p( i )d i e
0
0
d i 1 e
86
The probability that all M independent diversity branches

Rx signal which are simultaneously less than some
specific SNR threshold
Pr i 1 PM ( ) 1 (1 e / ) M
The pdf of :
d
M
pM ( )
PM ( ) 1 e
d
M 1
Average SNR improvement offered by selection diversity
pM ( )d Mx 1 e
x M 1
e x dx, x
k 1 k
87
Pr 1 ,... M (1 e / ) M PM ( )
88
1) Selection diversity
2) Feedback diversity
3) Maximal radio combining
4) Equal gain diversity
89
Space diversity methods:
Rx selects branch with highest instantaneous SNR

new selection made at a time that is the reciprocal of
the fading rate
this will cause the system to stay with the current
signal until it is likely the signal has faded
SNR improvement :
is new avg. SNR
: avg. SNR in each branch
90
1) Selection Diversity simple & cheap
91
Average SNR is 20 dB
Acceptable SNR is 10 dB
Assume four branch diversity
Determine that the probability that one signal
has SNR less than 10 dB
92
Example:
93
scan each antenna until a signal is found that is

above predetermined threshold
if signal drops below threshold rescan
only one Rx is required (since only receiving one
signal at a time), so less costly still need multiple
antennas
94
2) Scanning Diversity
signal amplitudes are weighted according to

each SNR
summed in-phase
most complex of all types
a complicated mechanism, but modern DSP
makes this more practical especially in the
base station Rx where battery power to
perform computations is not an issue
95
3) Maximal Ratio Diversity
The resulting signal envelop applied to detector:

M
rM Gi ri
i 1
Total noise power:

M
NT N Gi2
i 1
SNR applied to detector:
rM2
2 NT
96
( rM is maximized when Gi ri / N
The SNR out of the diversity combiner is the sum of

the SNRs in each branch.
97
The voltage signals i from each of the M diversity

branches are co-phased to provide coherent voltage
addition and are individually weighted to provide
optimal SNR
The probability that M less than some

specific SNR threshold
98
gives optimal SNR improvement :

i: avg. SNR of each individual branch
i = if the avg. SNR is the same for each
branch
M
i 1
i 1
M i i M
99
100
combine multiple signals into one

G = 1, but the phase is adjusted for each
received signal so that
The signal from each branch are co-phased
vectors add in-phase
better performance than selection diversity
101
4) Equal Gain Diversity
IV. Time Diversity
Time spacing > coherence time (coherence time is

the time over which a fading signal can be
considered to have similar characteristics)
So signals can be considered independent
Main disadvantage is that BW efficiency is
significantly worsened signal is transmitted more
than once
BW must to obtain the same Rd (data rate)
102
Time Diversity transmit repeatedly the

information at different time spacings
If data stream repeated twice then either

2) Rd is reduced by for the same BW
103
1) BW doubles for the same Rd or
Powerful form of time diversity available in

spread spectrum (DS) systems CDMA
Signal is only transmitted once
Propagation delays in the MRC provide
multiple copies of Tx signals delayed in time
104
RAKE Receiver
105
attempts to collect the time-shifted versions

of the original signal by providing a separate
correlation receiver for each of the multipath
signals.
Each correlation receiver may be adjusted in
time delay, so that a microprocessor
controller can cause different correlation
receivers to search in different time windows
for significant multipath.
The range of time delays that a particular
correlator can search is called a search
window.
106
If time delay between multiple signals > chip period of

spreading sequence (Tc) multipath signals can be
considered uncorrelated (independent)
In a basic system, these delayed signals only appear
as noise, since they are delayed by more than a chip
duration. And ignored.
Multiplying by the chip code results in noise because
of the time shift.
But this can also be used to our advantage, by
shifting the chip sequence to receive that delayed
signal separately from the other signals.
107
** The RAKE Rx is a time diversity Rx that

collects time-shifted versions of the original Tx
signal **
faded signal low weight

strong signal high weight
overcomes fading of a signal in a single branch
108
M branches or fingers = # of correlation Rxs

Separately detect the M strongest signals
Weighted sum computed from M branches
the delay between multipath components is

usually large, the low autocorrelation
properties of a CDMA spreading sequence
can assure that multipath components will
appear nearly uncorrelated with each other.
109
In outdoor environments
In indoor environments
since the multipath delay spreads in indoor

channels
(100 ns) are much smaller than an
IS-95 chip duration ( 800 ns).
In such cases, a RAKE will not work since
multipath is unresolveable
Rayleigh flat-fading typically occurs within a single
chip period.
110
RAKE receiver in IS-95 CDMA has been

found to perform poorly
Diversity Motivation
Aim: Reduce effects of fast fading

Concept:
If probability of a deep fade on one channel is p, probability on N

channel pN .
e.g. 10% chance of losing contact for one channel becomes
0.13=0.001=0.1% with 3 channels
Requirements for Diversity
Multiple branches
Low correlation between branches
Similar mean powers:
Efficient combiner
Multiple branches, independent fading

Process branches to reduce fading probability
Diversity Example
Spatial Diversity
Multiple input multiple out system (MIMO)
Beamforming, smart antenna
Space time coding
Horizontal and Vertical Combining
Frequency diversity
Frequency diversity transmits information on more than one
carrier frequency
Frequencies separated by more than the coherence bandwidth of
the channel will not experience the same fads
Time diversity
Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacings
that exceed the coherence time of the channel
Polarization diversity
Multi-user diversity
Different Diversity
Large antenna spacing or large scatterer

spacing produce large path length
differences
Hence multipath will combine differently at
each antenna
Space Diversity
Retransmit with Time Separation

Advantage: Need only one receiver
Disadvantage: Wastes bandwidth, adds
delay
Time Diversity
Wideband Channel
Simultaneous Transmission
Wastes power and bandwidth
Equalizers
Channel
Spectrum
Frequency
Frequency Diversity
Performance
Graph of probability distributions of SNR= threshold for M branch

selection diversity. The term represents the mean SNR on each
branch
Example 7.4
Interleaving
Block interleaver where source bits are read into columns and out as n-bit rows
H(n,k): k information bit length, n overall code length

n=2^m-1, k=2^m-m-1:
H(7,4), rate (4/7); H(15,11), rate (11/15); H(31,26), rate
(26/31)
H(7,4): Distance d=3, correction ability 1, detection ability
2.
Remember that it is good to have larger distance and
rate.
Larger n means larger delay, but usually better code
Hamming Code
Combining Techniques
Selection diversity
Feedback diversity
Maximal ration combining
Equal gain diversity
To Combine the multiple received copies
H(7,4)
Generator matrix G: first 4-by-4 identical matrix
Message information vector p
Transmission vector x
Received vector r
and error vector e
Parity check matrix H
Hamming Code Example
Error Correction
If there is one error at location 2

New syndrome vector z is
which corresponds to the second column of H. Thus, an

error has been detected in position 2, and can be corrected
If there is no error, syndrome vector z=zeros
Same problem as the previous slide, but

p=(1001) and the error occurs at location
4 instead.
Pause for 5 minutes
Might be 4 points in the finals.
Exercise
Hamming (7,4,3) -code. It has 16 codewords of

length 7. It can be used to send 27 = 128
messages and can be used to correct 1 error.
Golay (23,12,7) -code. It has 4 096 codewords. It
can be used to transmit 8 3888 608 messages
and can correct 3 errors.
Quadratic residue (47,24,11) -code. It has 16 777
216 codewords and can be used to transmit 140
737 488 355 238 messages and correct 5 errors.
Important Hamming Codes
ReedMuller code
Cyclic code
They posses rich algebraic structure that can be utilized in a
variety of ways.
They have extremely concise specifications.
They can be efficiently implemented using simple shift register
Many practically important codes are cyclic
In practice, cyclic codes are often used for error

detection (Cyclic redundancy check, CRC)
Used for packet networks
When an error is detected by the receiver, it requests retransmission
ARQ
Cyclic codes are of interest and importance because
BASIC DEFINITION of Cyclic Code
FREQUENCY of CYCLIC CODES
EXAMPLE of a CYCLIC CODE
POLYNOMIALS over GF(q)
EXAMPLE
Cyclic Code Encoder
Similar structure as multiplier for encoder

Cyclic Code Decoder
Divider
Cyclic Redundancy Checks

(CRC)
Example of CRC
Checking for errors
Capability of CRC
All single-bit errors if G(x) has more than one nonzero term
All double-bit errors if G(x) has a factor with three terms
Any odd number of errors, if P(x) contain a factor x+1
Any burst with length less or equal to n-k
A fraction of error burst of length n-k+1; the fraction is 1-2^(-(-nk-1)).
A fraction of error burst of length greater than n-k+1; the fraction
is 1-2^(-(n-k)).
Powerful error detection; more computation complexity

compared to Internet checksum
An error E(X) is undetectable if it is divisible by G(x). The

following can be detected.
BCH Code
Bose, Ray-Chaudhuri, Hocquenghem
Most powerful cyclic code

For any positive integer m and t<2^(m-1), there exists a t-error
correcting (n,k) code with n=2^m-1 and n-k<=mt.
Industry standards
(511, 493) BCH code in ITU-T. Rec. H.261 video codec for
audiovisual service at kbit/s a video coding a standard used for
video conferencing and video phone.
(40, 32) BCH code in ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Multiple error correcting ability

Ease of encoding and decoding
BCH Performance
Reed-Solomon Codes
Storage devices (tape, CD, DVD)

Wireless or mobile communication
Satellite communication
Digital television/Digital Video
Broadcast(DVB)
High-speed modems (ADSL, xDSL)
An important subclass of non-binary BCH

Wide range of applications
1971: Mariner 9
Mariner 9 used a [32,6,16] Reed-Muller
code to transmit its grey images of Mars.
camera rate:
100,000 bits/second
transmission speed:
16,000 bits/second
Voyagers I & II used a [24,12,8] Golay code

to send its color images of Jupiter and Saturn.
Voyager 2 traveled further to Uranus

and Neptune. Because of the higher
error rate it switched to the more
robust Reed-Solomon code.
1979+: Voyagers I & II
More recently
Turbo codes
were invented,
which are used in
3G cell phones,
(future) satellites,
and in the CassiniHuygens space
probe [1997].
Other modern codes: Fountain, Raptor, LT, online codes
Modern Codes
Error Correcting Codes
Imperfectness of a given code as the difference between the code's required Eb/No to attain a
given word error probability (Pw), and the minimum possible Eb/No required to attain the same Pw,
as implied by the sphere-packing bound for codes with the same block size k and code rate r.
Speech-Coding Techniques
Introduction
Advantages for VoIP
Digital streams of ones and zeros
The lower the bandwidth, the lower the quality
RTP payload types

Processing power
The better quality (for a given bandwidth) uses a
more complex algorithm
A balance between quality and cost
3-146
Efficient speech-coding techniques
Voice Quality
Bandwidth is easily quantified
MOS, Mean Opinion Score
ITU-T Recommendation P.800
Excellent 5
Good 4
Fair 3
Poor 2
Bad 1
A minimum of 30 people
Listen to voice samples or in conversations
3-147
Voice quality is subjective
The selection of participants

The test environment
Explanations to listeners
Analysis of results
Toll quality
A MOS of 4.0 or higher
3-148
P.800 recommendations
ITU-T P.861
faithfully represent human judgement and perception
algorithmic comparison between the output signal
and a know input
type of speaker, loudness, delay, active/silence
frames, clipping, environmental noise
3-149
Subjective and objective quality-testing

techniques
PSQM Perceptual Speech Quality
Measurement
A Little About Speech

Air pushed from the lungs past the vocal cords and
along the vocal tract
The basic vibrations vocal cords
The sound is altered by the disposition of the vocal
tract ( tongue and mouth)
Model the vocal tract as a filter

The shape changes relatively slowly
The vibrations at the vocal cords

The excitation signal
3-150
Speech
Speech sounds
The vocal cords vibrate open and close
Interrupt the air flow
Quasi-periodic pluses of air
The rate of the opening and closing the
pitch
A high degree of periodicity at the pitch period
2-20 ms
3-151
Voiced sound
3-152
Voiced speech
Power spectrum density
Forcing air at high velocities through a

constriction
The glottis is held open
Noise-like turbulence
Show little long-term periodicity
Short-term correlations still present
3-153
Unvoiced sounds
3-154
unvoiced speech
Power spectrum density
A complete closure in the vocal tract

Air pressure is built up and released suddenly
A vast array of sounds

The speech signal is relatively predictable
over time
The reduction of transmission bandwidth can
be significant
3-155
Plosive sounds
Voice Sampling
discrete samples of the waveform and
represent each sample by some number of
bits
A signal can be reconstructed if it is sampled
at a minimum of twice the maximum freq.
Human speech
300-3800 Hz
8000 samples per second
A-to-D
Each sample is encoded

into an 8-bit PCM code
word
(e.g.
01100101)
time
=> 8000
x8
bit/s
3-156
Quantization
The difference between the actual level of the

input analog signal
More bits to reduce

Diminishing returns
Uniform quantization levels

Louder talkers sound better
11.2/11 v.s. 2.2/2
3-157
How many bits is used to represent

Quantization noise
Smaller quantization steps at smaller signal

levels
Spread signal-to-noise ratio more evenly
3-158
Non-uniform quantization
DTX is Discontinuous Transmission

Voice activity detector (VAD) detects if there is
active speech or not.
When there is no active speech different DTX
procedures can be used:
No Transmission at all
Comfort Noise (CN) using RFC 3389
Codec built CN in like AMR SID (Silence Descriptor)
Frequency of Comfort Noise packets varies but

is usually some fraction of normal packet rate
3-159
DTX and Comfort Noise
Type of Speech Coders

Sample and code
High-quality and not complex
Large amount of bandwidth
source codecs (vocoders)

Match the incoming signal to a math model
Linear-predictive filter model of the vocal tract
A voiced/unvoiced flag for the excitation
The information is sent rather than the signal
Low bit rates, but sounds synthetic
Higher bit rates do not improve much
3-160
Waveform codecs
Attempt to provide the best of both

Perform a degree of waveform matching
Utilize the sound production model
Quite good quality at low bit rate
3-161
Hybrid codecs
G.711
The most commonplace codec
If uniform quantization
12 bits * 8 k/sec = 96 kbps
Non-uniform quantization
64 kbps DS0 rate
mu-law
North America
A-law
Other countries, a little friendlier to lower signal levels
An MOS of about 4.3

3-162
Used in circuit-switched telephone network

PCM, Pulse-Code Modulation
DPCM
Only transmit the difference between the predicated value and
the actual value
Voice changes relatively slowly
It is possible to predict the value of a sample base on the
values of previous samples
The receiver perform the same prediction
The simplest form
No prediction
No algorithmic delay
3-163
DPCM, Differential PCM
ADPCM
ADPCM, Adaptive DPCM
Past samples
Factoring in some knowledge of how speech varies
over time
The error is quantized and transmitted

Fewer bits required
G.721
32 kbps
G.726
A-law/mu-law PCM -> 16, 24, 32, 40 kbps
An MOS of about 4.0 at 32 kbps
3-164
Predicts sample values based on
Analysis-by-Synthesis (AbS)
Codecs
Fill the gap between waveform and source codecs
The most successful and commonly used
Time-domain AbS codecs

Not a simple two-state, voiced/unvoiced
Different excitation signals are attempted
Closest to the original waveform is selected
MPE, Multi-Pulse Excited
RPE, Regular-Pulse Excited
CELP, Code-Excited Linear Predictive
3-165
Hybrid codec
G.728 LD-CELP
CELP codecs
A vector = a set of elements representing various char. of the
excitation
Transmit
Filter coefficients, gain, a pointer to the vector chosen
Low Delay CELP

Backward-adaptive coder
Use previous samples to determine filter coefficients
Operates on five samples at a time
Delay < 1 ms
Only the pointer is transmitted

3-166
A filter; its characteristics change over time

A codebook of acoustic vectors
LD-CELP encoder
Minimize a frequency-weighted mean-square
error
3-167
1024 vectors in the code book

10-bit pointer (index)
16 kbps
An MOS score of about 3.9

One-quarter of G.711 bandwidth
3-168
LD-CELP decoder
G.723.1 ACELP
6.3 or 5.3 kbps
The coder
A band-limited input speech signal
Sampled at 8 KHz, 16-bit uniform PCM quantization
Operate on blocks of 240 samples at a time
A look-ahead of 7.5 ms
A total algorithmic delay of 37.5 ms + other delays
A high-pass filter to remove any DC component
3-169
Both mandatory
Can change from one to another during a
conversation
Linear predication coefficients

Gain parameters
Excitation codebook index
24-octet frames at 6.3 kbps, 20-octet frames at 5.3 kbps
3-170
Various operations to determine the appropriate

filter coefficients
5.3 kbps, Algebraic Code-Excited Linear Prediction
6.3 kbps, Multi-pulse Maximum Likelihood
Quantization
The transmission
Silence Insertion Description (SID) frames of size

four octets
The two lsbs of the first octet

00
01
10
6.3kbps
24 octets/frame
5.3kbps
20
SID frame 4
An MOS of about 3.8

At least 27.5 ms delay
3-171
G.723.1 Annex A
8 kbps
Input frames of 10 ms, 80 samples for 8 KHz
sampling rate
5 ms look-ahead
Algorithmic delay of 15 ms
An 80-bit frame for 10 ms of speech

A complex codec
G.729.A (Annex A), a number of simplifications
Same frame structure
Encoder/decoder, G.729/G.729.A
Slightly lower quality
3-172
G.729
G.729.B
Based on analysis of several parameters of the input
The current frames plus two preceding frames
DTX, Discontinuous Transmission

Send nothing or send an SID frame
SID frame contains information to generate comfort noise
CNG, Comfort Noise Generation
G.729, an MOS of about 4.0

G.729A an MOS of about 3.7
3-173
VAD, Voice Activity Detection
a lower-rate extension
6.4 kbps; 10 ms speech samples, 64 bits/frame
MOS 6.3 kbps G.723.1
G.729 Annex E
a higher bit rate enhancement
the linear prediction filter of G.729 has 10 coef.
that of G.729 Annex E has 30 coef.
the codebook of G.729 has 35 bits
that of G.729 Annex E has 44 bits
118 bits/frame; 11.8 kbps
3-174
G.729 Annex D
Other Codecs
Variable-rate coder
Two most common rates
The high rate, 13.3 kbps
A lower rate, 6.2 kbps
Silence suppression
For use with RTP, RFC 2658
3-175
CDMA QCELP defined in IS-733
GSM 06.60
An enhanced version of GSM Full-Rate
ACELP-based codec
The same bit rate and the same overall
packing structure
12.2 kbps
Support discontinuous transmission

For use with RTP, RFC 1890
3-176
GSM Enhanced Full-Rate (EFR)
20 ms coding delay
Eight different modes
4.75 kbps to 12.2 kbps
12.2 kbps, GSM EFR
7.4 kbps, IS-641 (TDMA cellular systems)
Change the mode at any time
Offer discontinuous transmission
The SID (Silence Descriptor) is sent in every 8 th frame and is 5
bytes in size
The coding choice of many 3G wireless networks

3-177
GSM Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) codec
G.711 does not deal with lost packets

G.729 can accommodate a lost frame by
interpolating from previous frames
But cause errors in subsequent speech frames
Processing Power
G.728 or G.729, 40 MIPS
G.726 10 MIPS
3-178
The MOS values are for laboratory

conditions
a FREE codec for robust VoIP

13.33 kbit/s with an encoding frame
length of 30 ms and 15.20 kbps of 20 ms
Computational complexity in a range of
G.729A
3-179
iLBC
Speex
narrowband (8 kHz sampling rate)

2.15 24.6 kb/s
delay of 30 ms
wideband (16 kHz sampling rate)

4-44.2 kb/s
delay of 34 ms
ultra-wideband (32 kHz sampling rate)
intensity stereo encoding

variable bit rate (VBR) possible
voice activity detection (VAD)
3-180
Open-source patent-free speech codec

CELP (code-excited linear prediction) codec
operating modes:
E.g., G.711 stream -> G.729 encoder/decoder

Might not even come close to G.729
Each coder only generate an approximate

of the incoming signal
Audio samples
http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/audio/codec
s.html
3-181
Cascaded Codecs
3-182
Effects of packetization
Tones, Signal, and DTMF Digits

Other data may need to be transmitted
Tones: fax tones, dialing tone, busy tone
DTMF digits for two-stage dialing or voice-mail
G.711 is OK
G.723.1 and G.729 can be unintelligible
The ingress gateway needs to intercept
The tones and DTMF digits
Use an external signaling system
3-183
The hybrid codecs are optimized for human speech
Encode the tones differently from the speech

Send them along the same media path
An RTP packet provides the name of the tone and
the duration
Or, a dynamic RTP profile; an RTP packet containing
the frequency, volume and the duration
RFC 2198
An RTP payload format for redundant audio data
Sending both types of RTP payload
3-184
Easy at the start of a call

Difficult in the middle of a call
An Internet Draft
Both methods described before
A large number of tones and events
DTMF digits, a busy tone, a congestion tone, a
ringing tone, etc.
The named events

E: the end of the tone, R: reserved
3-185
RTP Payload Format for DTMF Digits
3-186
Payload format
message
linguistic code (~ 50 b/s)
motor control
speech production
SPEECH SIGNAL (~50 kb/s)

speech perception
cognitive processes
linguistic code (~ 50 b/s)
message
Human Speech Communication
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
dynamic range of speech is about 50-60 dB

11 bits/sample
maximum frequency in telephone speech is 3.4

kHz
sampling frequency 8 kHz
8000 x 11 = 88 kb/s
Simple and universal but not very efficient
Transmit value of each speech sample
Less quantization noise

for weaker signals
IN
OUT
Better quantization ?
Logarithmic PCM (-law, Alaw)
A - law
Finer quantization for each individual small amplitude sample

how about small signal samples surrounded by large ones?
it is the instantaneous signal energy which should determine the step
- law
Differential coding
time
For many natural signals, the difference between

successive samples quantizes better than samples
themselves
Even better, predict the current sample from the past ones
and transmit the error of the prediction
current sample
DPCM
a single predictor
reflecting global
predictability of speech
predictor order up to 4-5
delta modulation - gross
quantization of prediction
error into 1 bit (typically
requires up-sampling well
over the Nyquist rate)
adaptive DPCM
new predictor for every
new speech block
predictor needs to be
transmitted together with
the prediction error
Differential predictive coding
Speech Coders
Linear model of speech

production
A.G. Bell got it almost right
source
filter
speech
changes slowly
linear model of speech
long-term prediction
short-term prediction
time
short-term
long-term
- resonance of vocal tract

- periodicity of voiced speech (vocal cord vibration)
current
sample
The same principle as in H. Dudleys Vocoder

Used by US Government (LPC-10) - 2.4 kbs
LPC vocoder
Residual Excited LPC (RELP)

Simplify prediction
error (low-pass filter
and down-sample
Receiver
re-introduce high
frequencies in the
simplified residual
(nonlinear
distortion)
Transmitter:
Identical synthesizer in coder and in decoder
change parameters in coder

use for synthesizing speech
compare synthesized speech with real speech
when close enough, send parameters to the receiver
Analysis-by-synthesis
Future in speech coding?

No need to transmit what we do not hear
No need to transmit what is predictable
speech production mechanism
speaker characteristics
linguistic code (recognition-synthesis)
thought-to-speech
study human hearing, especially masking
Automatic recognition of
speech
electric signal
(more than 50 kb/s)
prior knowledge
( textbook )
acquired knowledge
( data )
linguistic message
phoneme string
(below 50 b/s)
reduce information = decrease entropy
Automatic speech recognition (ASR)

derive proper response from
speech stimulus
Auditory perception
how do biological systems
respond to acoustic stimuli
Knowledge of auditory
perception ?
knowledge
Principle of stochastic ASR

Using a model of speech production process, generate all
possible acoustic sequences wi for all legal linguistic messages
w arg max( P(M(w i ) | x))

i
1. What is the model M ( wi ) ?

2. Form of the data x ?
Compare all generated sequences with the unknown acoustic

input x to find which one is the most similar
One (simple) model

hello world
e
Two dominant sources of variability in speech

1. people say the same thing with different speeds
( temporal variability )
2. different people sound different, communication
environment different, ( feature variability)
Doubly stochastic process (Hidden Markov Model)

Speech as a sequence of hidden states - recover the
state sequence
1. never know for sure in which state we are
2. never know for sure which data can be
generated from a given state
Hidden Markov Model

hi
160 Hz
hi
hi
pm
hi
pf
The model
pm-f
p1m
170 Hz
200 Hz
hi
hi
hi
hi
hi
P(sound|gender)
sequence of male and
female groups?
f
f0
pf-m
hi
m
f
110 Hz 140 Hz 240 Hz
f0=160 Hz 170 Hz
What the x should

be ?
x
units of speech
(phonemes)
160 170 160 170 200 110 140 240

170 190
Reflects changes in acoustic pressure

its original purpose is reconstruction of speech
does carry relevant information
always also carry some

irrelevant information
additional processing
is necessary to
alleviate it
Speech signal ?
histogram
speech signal
correlations
Where Is The Message ?
/u/ /o/
/a/
// /iy/
beer
/
uw//ao//ah//eh//ih/
/iy/
it is in the
spectrum !!
Isaac Newton
averaged fft spectra

of some vowels from
3 hours of fluent
speech
Internal Combustion Engine (2003)

Inertia in engineering
Steam Engine (1769)
frequency
get spectral components
j/ /u/ /ar/ /j/ /o/ /j/

/o/
time
Short-term Spectrum
time
10-20 ms
histogram
short-term speech spectral

envelope
correlations
histogram
logarithmic short-term speech

spectral envelope
correlations
histogram
correlations
cosine transform of
logarithmic short-term speech
spectral envelope
(cepstrum)
What Is Wrong With the Shortterm Spectrum ?

1) inconsistent (same message, different representation)
frequency
auditory-like
modifications
auditory-like
spectrum
short-term spectrum
Frequency
resolution of
human ear
decreases with
frequency
Pitch of the tone (Mel scale)
FFT
critical-band energy
Emulating frequency resolution of human

ear with FFT
t
Equal Loudness Curves
Perceptual Linear
Prediction (PLP)
Auditory-like modifications
of short-term speech
spectrum prior to its
approximation by all-pole
autoregressive model
critical-band spectral
resolution
equal-loundness
sensitivity
intensity-loudness
nonlinearity
Today applied in virtually
all state-of-the-art
experimental ASR systems
[Hermansky 1990]
Spectral Basis from LDA
/j/
/u/
/ar/
/j/
/o/
/j/
/o/
time
frequency
LDA gives basis for projection of spectral

space
63 %
12 %
16 %
2%
Spectral resolution of
LDA-derived
spectral basis is
higher at low
frequencies
Critical bands of
human hearing are
narrower at lower
frequencies
LDA vectors from Fourier Spectrum
Sensitivity to Spectral
Change
(Malayath 1999)
LDA-derived bases
Critical-band fi
Cosine basis
Combination of channel and signal spectrum should be as flat

(as random-like) as possible.
Shannon, Communication in presence of noise (1949)
if the receiver could be controlled
energy of the
signal
put more resources (introduce less

noise) where there is more signal
biological system optimized for
information extraction from
sensory signals
resource space
energy of the
signal
level of noise in the

channel
resource space
if signal could be controlled (e.g. in

communication)
put more signal where there is

less noise
sensory signal optimized for a

given communication channel
level of noise in the

channel
What Is Wrong With the Short-term Spectral

Envelope?
2) Fragile (easily corrupted by minor disturbances)
additive band-limited noise

ignore the noisy parts of the spectrum
f
linear (high-pass) filtering

remove means from parts of the spectrum
f
spectrum
Simultaneous Masking
Nonlinear
frequency
resolution of
hearing
Critical bands
up to ~600 Hz
constant
bandwidth
above 1 kHz
constant Q
tone at f
critical
bandwidth
threshold of
perception
of the tone
noise bandwidth
band-pass filtered
noise centered at f
More Important Outcome of Masking

Experiments
Independent processing of parts of the spectrum ?
Replace spectral
vector by a
matrix of
posterior
probabilities of
{p(f)} acoustic events
S ( frequency )
pf1 pf2 pf3
pf4
pf5
pf6
( Hermansky, Sharma and Pavel 1996, Bourlard and Dupont 1996 )
What happens outside the critical band does not

affect detection of events within the band !!!
frequency
What Is Wrong With the Short-term Spectral

Envelope?
3) Coarticulation (inertia of organs of speech production)
coarticulation
human auditory perception
d
Masking in Time
masker
signal
stronger masker
200 ms
suggests ~200 ms buffer in auditory system

also seen in perception of loudness, detection of short stimuli, gaps
in tones, auditory afterimages, binaural release from masking, ..
what happens outside this buffer, does no affect detection of signal
within the buffer
time
increase
in threshold
data x
time
longer time span ?

(~250 ms?)
Short-term Features?
~10 ms
time
processing
time-frequency distribution of
the linear component of the
most efficient stimulus that
excites the given auditory
neuron
Average of the first two

principal components ( 83% of
variance ) along temporal axis
from about 180 cortical
receptive fields ( from D. Klein
2004, unpublished )
Cortical Receptive Fields
Data for Deriving Posterior Probabilities of

Speech Events
250-1000 ms
FREQUENCY
TIME [s]
1-3 critical bands
How to Get Estimates of Temporal Evolution of

Spectral Energy ?
time
200-1000 ms
10-20 ms
time
data x
1-3 Bark
200-1000 ms
all-pole model of part of

time-frequency plane
200-1000 ms
1-3 Bark
- with M. Athineos, D. Ellis (Columbia Univ), and P. Fousek (CTU Prague)
All-pole Model of Temporal Trajectory

of Spectral Energy
DCT
of
the signal
conventional LP
the signal
spectral domain LP
Hilbert
envelope
of the signal
signal power
spectrum
all-pole
model of
the Hilbert
envelope
all-pole
model of
the power
spectrum
low frequency
signal
prediction
all-pole model
of lowfrequency
Hilbert
envelope
discrete
cosine
transform
prediction
high frequency
all-pole model
of highfrequency
Hilbert envelope
All-pole Models of Sub-band Energy

Contours
tonality
Critical-band Spectrum From FFT
tonality
time
Critical-band Spectrum From All-pole Models
Of Hilbert Envelopes in Critical Bands
time
Putting It All Together

TRAP-TANDEM
data-guided features based on frequency-independent
processing of relatively long spans of signal
class posteriors
processing
( trained NN )
data
processing
( trained NN )
data
time
processing
( trained NN )
some function
of phoneme
posteriors
frequency
with S. Sharma, P. Jain, S. Sivadas, ICSI Berkeley and TU Brno

Unit II Modulation and Signal Processing

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UNIT-IV

MODULATION & SIGNAL PROCESSING

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Modulation Techniques for

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Analog and Digital Modulation,

General structure of a communication system

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Learning fundamental issues in designing a

Formatting and source coding

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Key Digital Modulation

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Double Sideband Spectrum

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Tone-in Band SSB

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Slope Detector for FM

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Digital Demod for FM

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PLL Demod for FM

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Phase-shift quadrature FM demod

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Line Coding spectra

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RZ and NRZ Line Codes

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Nyquist Pulses for zero-ISI

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Raised Cosine Spectrum

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Spectrum of Raised Cosine pulse

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Raised Cosine pulses

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RF signal usig Raised Cosine

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Virtue of pulse shaping

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BPSK Coherent demodulator

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Differential PSK encoding

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QPSK constellation diagrams

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Virtues of Pulse Shaping

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