GEOLOGY IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Earth Science
science dealing with one or more aspect of

the earth
we live and work in earth so knowing about it
is a must for us
study the origin of earth, what is it made up
of, the various processes (physical, dynamic
and physico-chemical) inside and around the
earth.

can be divided generally into five branches

Geology- study of the earth
Meteorology- study of atmosphere in all its aspects
Oceanography- study of oceans
Astronomy- study of celestial bodies
Hydrology- study of water

Why study the earth

Were part of it. Dust to Dust.
Humans have the capability to make rapid

changes. All construction from houses to

roads to dams are effected by the earth and
thus require some geologic knowledge.
All life depends on the earth for food and
nourishment. The earth is there everyday of
our lives.

Geology:
Geo derived from Greek word means
Earth, Logy- study of .
The earth has evolved (changed)
throughout its history, and will continue to
evolve.
Earth 4.6 billion years old, human beings
have been around for only the past 2 million
years.

Geology is the study of the Earth. (its

origin, history and structure as recorded in

the rocks, together with forces and
processes operating to modify the rocks)
It includes not only the surface process
which have shaped the earth's surface, but
the study of the ocean floors, and the
interior of the Earth. It is not only the study
of the Earth as we see it today, but the
history of the Earth as it has evolved to its
present condition.

Interesting Facts
The Earth has evolved (changed) throughout its

history, and will continue to evolve.

The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old, human
beings have been around for only the past 2
million years.
Thus, mankind has been witness to only 0.043% of
Earth history.
The first multi-celled organisms appeared about
700 million years ago. Thus, organisms have only
been witness to about 15% of Earth's history.

Thus, for us to have an understanding of the earth

upon which we live, we must look at processes

and structures that occur today, and interpret
what must have happened in the past.
One of the major difficulties we have is with the
time scale. Try to imagine 1 million years-- That's
50,000 times longer than most of you have lived.
It seems like a long time doesn't it?
Yet, to geologists, 1 million years is a relatively
short period of time. But one thing we have to
remember when studying the earth is that things
that seem like they take a long time to us, may
take only a short time to earth.

A river deposits about 1 mm of sediment (mud)

each year. How thick is the mud after 100 years?

-- 10 cm hardly noticeable over your lifetime.

What if the river keeps depositing that same 1

mm/yr for 10 million years?

10,000 meters.
Things can change drastically!

interest in geology often stemmed from a

need to know.
geologists were confronted with real

engineering problems which could only be

solved with the help of both a knowledge and
understanding of the ground conditions with
which they were confronted.

Engineering Geology:
deals with application of geological
knowledge in civil engineering.
developed due to interaction between
civil engineering practice and
geological science.

Other branches of geology

Petrology: study of rocks (petro: rock)
Geomorphology: study of origin and shape of earths
feature
Soil mechanics: study of stresses and strain in soil
Rock mechanics: study of stress/strain in rock mass
Pedology: scientific study of soil
Geophysics: application of methods of physics for study
of rock and soil masses.
Seismology: study of earthquake, application of
earthquake waves

The geological knowledge of an engineer,

confronted by increasingly difficult engineering

challenges, did not progress as rapidly as geology
by the end of the 19th century the majority of civil
engineers knew relatively little about geology, and
very few geologists were concerned about, or
interested in, its engineering applications.
This widening division between geology and
engineering was partly bridged in the 19th and
early 20th century by the development of soil
mechanics by engineers such as Charles Coulomb
and Macquorn Rankine.

Its Okay!! That was earth

science and
Geology
BUT
Why geology in civil engineering ??

Failure of Austin Dam in 1900 and the St.

Francis Dam in 1928 emphasised the need for

expert assessment of geological conditions on
civil engineering sites.
The careful design of structure itself is not all
that is required for safety.

Engineering geology studies the geotechnical

aspect of sites and locations for major

engineering projects
Plays vital role in planning, designing and
constructing safe, stable and economic
engineering projects.
Location of suitable sites for construction of
bridges, tunnels, dams, roads etc. are
successful with the application of geological
knowledge.

Inter-relation of geology and other

science

Branches of geology
Physical Geology: it deals with the internal

and external processes that bring about the

changes on earths surface.
Geomorphology: study of origin and shape of
earths feature. It deals mainly with landform
and processes of earths surface.
Structural Geology: deals with architecture or
various structures of rocks. The geological
structures are folds, faults, joints, fissures,
cleavage, fracture, beddings, foliations etc.

Branches of geology
Geotectonics: deals with the movement of the

earths crust and deformation caused by them.

Mineralogy: studies the composition, characteristics,
modes of occurrence and origin of the minerals.
Petrology: study of origin, composition, texture about
rocks. (petro=rock)
Stratigraphy: study of various layers or sequences of
rocks in space and time and their relationship with
rocks of other regions.
Seismology: study of earthquake, earthquake waves
and use of the waves for geophysical methods

Branches of geology
Geophysics: the science which employs the

principle and methods of physics in the field of

geology. These methods are used for
prospecting and construction.
Palaeontology: study of fossils in the rocks.
Palaeontology is the geologists clock by which
s/he determines the times in earth history.
Engineering Geology: deals with application of
geology in civil engineering.
Hydrogeology: studies the geological aspect
and control on the occurrence and movement
of groundwater.
Sedimentology: study of sediments

Branches of geology
Geochemistry: deals with the chemical composition

of earth and distribution of various elements or

compounds in various parts of earth.
Mining Geology: application of geology in mining of
minerals, rocks, hydrocarbon, metals
Economic Geology: study of mineral deposits, their
occurrence, distribution and economic value.
Environment Geology: geological solutions to protect
environment from degrading.
Historical Geology: study history of evolution of
continents and oceans
Geochronology: dating of rocks by radioactive and
other methods for knowing the age of their formation

Engineering Geology

deals with application of geological knowledge in civil

engineering.

"Engineering Geology is the science devoted to the

investigation, study and solution of the engineering

and environmental problems which may arise as the
result of the interaction between geology and the
works and activities of man as well as to the
prediction and of the development of measures for
prevention or remediation of geological hazards."
(IAEG statutes, 1992).

developed due to interaction between civil

engineering practice and geological science.

The philosophy of engineering geology is

based on three simple premises. These are:

1. All engineering works are built in or on the
ground.
2. The ground will always, in some manner,
react to the construction of the engineering
work.
3. The reaction of the ground (its engineering
behaviour) to the particular engineering work
must be accommodated by that work

Engineering Geology embraces :

the definition of the geomorphology, structure, stratigraphy,
lithology and groundwater conditions of geological
formations;
the characterisation of the mineralogical, physicogeomechanical, chemical and hydraulic properties of all
earth materials involved in construction, resource recovery
and environmental change ;
the assessment of the mechanical and hydrologic behaviour
of soil and rock masses;
the prediction of changes to the above properties with time;
the determination of the parameters to be considered in the
stability analysis of engineering works and of earth masses ;
and
the improvement and maintenance of the environmental
condition and of the properties of the terrain.

Engineering geology applies the geologic skills to

the practical solution of engineering problems.

It studies the geotechnical aspect of sites and
locations for major engineering projects
The interpretation of geologic data gathered in an
engineering geologic investigation results in
recommendation that affect the lives and well
being of general public
Plays vital role in planning, designing and
constructing safe, stable and economic
engineering projects.
Location of suitable sites for construction of
bridges, tunnels, dams, roads etc. are successful
with the application of geological knowledge.

Both geology and civil engineering use earth

material in their fields.

Activity of both the professions are related
directly or indirectly with rocks, soil and rock
forming minerals.
For civil engineers a fundamental knowledge
of engineering geology is considered as
essential as that of soil mechanics, strength of
material or theory of structures.

the application of geology for a safe, stable and

economic design and construction of a civil

engineering project is main aim of engineering
geology.
Ordinary geological studies involve large area
but the civil structures need detail information
about local geological condition . This is where
the engineering geology comes into play.
The main objective of engineering geology is to
show local geological conditions and give the
suitability of sites.
The geological data are vital for the
identification of the projects, its feasibility ,
design, proper construction and maintenance.

Judgement based on geologic investigation may

change in cost and suitability of a project.

Knowledge of rock type, the environment in which
they form, their response to weathering, erosion,
tectonic process and the discontinuities
developed in them as well as the physical
properties of soil are useful in estimating site
conditions and cannot be ignored.
Today's best practise modern civil engineering
design demands good quality ground
investigation and particularly good geological
interpretation.
Recent major engineering projects have shown
that investment in the best understanding of the
geology results in design optimisation - and

Basic objective of engineering geological study

can be summarised as
It enables a civil engineer to understand
engineering implications of certain conditions
related to the area of construction, which are
essentially geologic in nature.
It enables a geologist to understand the
nature of geological information that is
absolutely essential for a safe design and
construction of a civil engineering project.

A civil engineer is neither expected nor

required to undertake the geological

investigation all by himself before designing
and implementing the major civil engineering
projects.
However s/he should be capable to
understand and critically discuss a geological
report of the area prepared by a geologist and
derive maximum useful information pertaining
to the project in question.

Role of an engineering geologist

An engineering geologist should prepare

engineering geological maps that are of

immediate use to a civil engineer.
The role of an engineering geologist is the
interpretation oflandformsand earth processes
to identify potential geologic and related manmade hazards that may impact civil structures
and human development.
The principal objective of the engineering
geologist is the protection of life and property
against damage caused by geologic conditions.

Engineering Geology has been used in Hydropower

development, Road constructions, Building

construction and urban planning.
In all types of heavy construction jobs such as
buildings, towers, tanks, dams and reservoirs,
highways and bridges, highway and hydropower
tunnels, embankments and retaining structures,
lining of irrigational and navigational canals and
water bodies, laying for oil, gas and water transport
and so on, full geological information about the
construction site and about the natural materials of
construction is very much important.
In these construction works engineering geological
knowledge is must in all phase of the project:
planning, designing and execution.

Scopes of engineering geology

Engineering geologic studies may be performed:
for residential, commercial and industrial
developments;
for governmental and military installations;
for public works such as a power plant, wind
turbine, transmission line, sewage treatment
plant, water treatment plant, pipeline, tunnel,,
canal, dam, reservoir, building, railroad, highway,
bridge, seismic retrofit, airport and park;
for mine and quarry excavations, mine tailing
dam, mine reclamation and mine tunnelling;
for wetland and habitat restoration programs;
for coastal engineering, sand replenishment, bluff
or sea cliff stability, harbour, pier and waterfront
development;

Knowledge of engineering geology is required for

Estimation of site locations and conditions
Evaluation of geological hazards (floods, landslides,
volcanism, GLOF etc.)
Selection and preparation rock materials
Estimation for mine and quarry excavations, mine
reclamation, mine tunneling
Evaluation of cutting and drilling tools
Analysis of rock stress, stability and deformation
Control of blast procedures
Design of support system

Importance in context of Nepal

Nepal has more than 80% of its land in

mountainous region
Our Himalaya is a very dynamic and fragile
mountain range.
Himalaya was originated due to collision of
Indian plate with the Eurasian plate
This collision not only formed the mountain
but dissected the thus formed mountain by
many discontinuities i.e. thrusts.

Among them three major thrust are active

and important
Main Frontal Thrust (MFT)
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and
Main Central Thrust (MCT)

These more or less parallel thrust run almost

all along the length of our country.

Apart from them there are numerous local
faults and thrusts.
These fault and thrust are deformed and
fragile, very weak zones.

Folded, jointed and faulted rock bodies

indicate instable places for civil structures.

Nepal is also very vulnerable for natural
disasters like earthquakes, flood, landslides
and GLOF .
Maximum rainfall in very less time and steep
slopes add to the woes.(80% rainfall in 3
months)
Siwalik or Chure region is made up of
relatively new rocks and so are very weak
zones.
Lesser and Higher Himalaya are also not very
much safe.
Our rivers have also very high erosive power.

Construction works in Nepal has to be done

with utmost care.

We cannot always avoid the sites for
constructions.
In such cases always a through geological
investigation is required.
Without geological engineering studies the
civil engineering projects in such vulnerable
areas will not be successful.
If the site cannot be avoided, proper
mitigation measures should be considered.

Structure and
Environment of Earth

Earth: the only habitable planet in our solar system

A ball of rock covered 2/3rd part by water.
Lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and

atmosphere forms the earths outer zone.

But interior of earth is not easy to observe.
It gets hotter with depth inside the earth.
The deepest borehole a human has ever made is
12,289 metresdeep (in Qatar, 2008)
This is very less compared to the average radius of
the earth i.e. 6378.1 km, (radius is little more at
equator than at poles)

As direct observation is not possible, indirect

observations for the study of internal structure

of earth has been carried out.
Study of volcanic products has its own
drawbacks due to the complex chemical
mixing of magma (molten rock) with host
rocks.
The study now is done by studying of
propagation of seismic waves (earthquake
waves) through the earth.

Earthquake generates different types of

waves two of which are important for indirect

study of earths internal structure
Primary wave (P-wave) and
Secondary wave (S-wave)

The velocity of these waves differ even in the

same medium.
And the velocity of the waves depends on
density and elastic constant of the material
they pass through.

The study of the nature of P and S waves

passing through the earth showed that the

earth is not uniform inside.
This heterogeneity is not random rather there

are zones with different density, state and

elastic property inside the earth separated by
discontinuities.

Internal structure of
earth
it was not until the turn of the 20th century

that scientists determined that our planet is

made up of three main layers: crust, mantle,
and core.
This layered structure can be

compared to that of a boiled egg.

Density, (mass/volume),
Temperature, and Pressure
increase with depth in the
Earth.

Crust
Uppermost solid shell of the earth.
Rigid and very thin compared with other two layers
The thickness of crust varies in oceans and continents
under the oceans: 5-6 km
under the continents: 30-35 km
under the mountains: 60-70 km
Average thickness of the crust: 35 km

Silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) are the most

dominant component of the crust.

Solid aggregate that make up the crust is termed
rock.

Scientists believe that below the lithosphere

is a relatively narrow (250-350 km), mobile

zone in the mantle called the asthenosphere
(from asthenes, Greek for weak).
This zone is composed of hot, semi-solid

material, which can soften and flow after

being subjected to high temperature and
pressure over geologic time. The rigid
lithosphere is thought to "float" or move about
on the slowly flowing asthenosphere.

Mantle
The seismic velocity abruptly increases

further inside the earth marking the mantle.

It is separated from the crust by Mohorovicic
discontinuity or Moho.
Mantle is also divided as upper, middle and
lower mantle.
The upper and middle mantle is about 1000
km thick.
Origin of magma, triggering of earthquake,
tectonics takes place in this upper and
transition zone mantle.

The mantle, which contains more iron,

magnesium, and calcium than the crust, is

hotter and denser because temperature and
pressure inside the Earth increase with depth.
But very little is known about the mantle as
all the observation have been of indirect
nature (mostly by the behaviour of the seismic
waves)
The lower mantle is more homogenous and
reaches upto 2900 km depth.

Core
Separated by Guttenbergg-Weichert

Discontinuity from the mantle the core

reaches the centre of earth.
Constitutes 17 % of the volume and 34% of
mass of earth.
S-wave do not pass through the core
indicating the core is liquid. The velocity of
the P-wave also decreases from 12.6 to 8.4
km/sec.
The core is made up of iron and transition
elements.

Earth's core is actually made up of two

distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer

core and a 1,250 km-thick solid inner core.
As the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core
spins, creating the Earth's magnetic field.
The density of the core varies from 5.5 x 10 3
kg/m3 to 10.6 x 103 kg/m3. the density at core
is up to 13 x 103 kg/m3
The temperate is extremely high (6000C)
and so is the pressure (3 million atmospheres)

Shadow zone
It is the region 103 to 142 of arc from the

focus of the earthquake has no direct

penetration of seismic waves.
4350 km belt around the earth
P-waves are refracted below the boundary
between the earths core and mantle.
S-waves cannot reach there as they dont
pass through the molten core.
This non penetration of S-waves here was a
evidence of the outer core being in liquid
state.

Various Landforms
on the Surface of
the Earth

Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a

dozen or more large and small plates that are

moving relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
The breaking and bending of earths crust
under internal forces of earth is termed
tectonic movements.
These forces cause rocks to bend, fold,
change, break.
They cause the landforms to change,
mountains and basins to form

These all occur due to the forces or the

differential stresses acting upon the rocks.

We will look into some of the landforms
generally produced due to the tectonic
movements.
(the tectonics will be dealt in detail in
subsequent chapter)

Mountains
A feature that towers or rises above the level of

surrounding area more or less abruptly

Usually mountains occur in chains or ranges
Have complex structures due to folding, faulting,
volcanic activity, igneous intrusions etc.
Different types of mountains have different methods of
origin
Types of mountains
Fold mountains
Block mountains
Volcanic mountains and
Residual mountain

Fold mountain
It results from the earths crust being

compressed from the sides

The layers of rocks in the
crust are pushed up
to form a fold
mountain.
Alps, Himalayas,
Andes are the examples.

Block mountains
Mountains formed due to faulting.
A part of the land block is depressed so that the

remaining block stands conspicuously above the

surroundings.
The uplifted section is termed the block mountain
(horst)
When the middle section falls down instead of
going up, it forms the rift valley (graben).

Volcanic mountains
The outrushing magma forms the fissures the

crust of the earth at a place into a dome,

mountains formed in such a way are called
volcanic or lacolith mountains.
Volcanoes emit gases, liquid, solids as well.
The gases are lost in atmosphere but the
liquid and solid get accumulated and heaps
around the fissure or orifice.
During continued activity for years, the
accumulation grow into an enormous size
justifying the name- mountain.

Residual mountain
When existing mountains or plateaus are in

eroding state the resulting structures are

called residual mountains or relict mountains
The eroding agents are snow, wind, rain
They erode the softer materials from the
existing mountains thus reshaping the lower
hills and valleys

Plateaus
Plateau or tablelands are relatively flat area

more than 200 m high.

Its one side may rise steeply from the flat area
while other side may drop steeply from the flat
area.
In some plateaus all the sides may drop away.
Types of plateaus
Piedmont plateau: lying at the base of a mountain
Intermont: plateau surrounded by mountain ranges
Continental: flat, large island plateau. e.g.

Greenland

The Tibetan plateau is the highest plateau in

the world with the altitude more than 4000 m

sometimes termed the roof of the world.

Shields
Large region of exposed basement rock

/Precambrian igneous rock with gentle convex

surface surrounded by sediments.
Origin is mostly volcanic
Tectonically stable

Next class:

Changes in faces and structure of

Earth

Thank You