Psychology

Psychology comes from a Greek word

Psyche
which
means
mind,
consciousness, or awareness.
It refers to the soul which is the core,
essence of a person.
It also derive character which is
attributed to man.
Science of behavior and mental
processes.

Psychology as a Science
It has scientific processes
It accepted theories as product of research:

> Statement of the problem

> Hypotheses
> Research Design
> Collection of Data and Analysis
> Replication
> Conclusion
Its contribution: PAP, APA (authorities in Tests/Research)

Psychology in the context of

Behavior
Social Relationship
Emotional Responses
Mental Functioning

> Overt actions observable like,

walking, kissing
> Social relationship interacting with
people
> Emotional Responses feelings such
as anger, lust, happiness and depression
> Physiological Reactions heart rate,
excitement, biochemical reactions

The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and

Physiology

Its earliest history can be traced back to the

time of the early Greeks with Socrates, Plato

and Aristotle.
During the 17th-century, the French
philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the
idea of dualism, which asserted that the
mind and body were two separate entities
that interact to form the human experience.
Its concern with Nature vs. nurture.

Wilhelm Wundt founded Psychology as acad. discipline in

1879. established the 1 st psych lab at the Uni. of Leipzig

Germany. Concern with senses
like vision, attention,
emotion, memory.
G. Stanley Hall studied with Wundt and est. the 1 st psych
lab in the US in 1883 at John Hopkins University.
J. Mckeen Cattell student of Wundt. Called as the 1 st
professor in Psychology in 1888. He was known for designing
a personality test, the 16 PF.
Sir Francis Galton individual differences in 1869 in Germany.
Titchener

Wundt
trained
psychologist
introduced
Structuralism in latter part of 19 th century. Focused on mental
structure and consciousness. Introspection as major method.

William James psychologist from Harvard,

opposed
structuralism
and
advocated
functionalism, how conscious function.
Sigmund Freud 20th century physician from
Vienese introduced the psychoanalytic theory
where human behavior is governed by the
unconscious.
John Watson founded behaviorism in 1920.
Ivan Pavlov founded the behaviorism which
focused on classical conditioning.
Max Wertheimer founded the Gestalt
psychology in Germany. Gestalt means Form
or Configuration.

Perspective in Psychology
The Biological Perspective
The study of physiology played a
major role in the development of
psychology as a separate science.
Today, this perspective is known as
biological psychology. Sometimes
referred to as biopsychology or
physiological
psychology,
this
perspective emphasizes the physical
and biological bases of behavior.

The Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral psychology is a perspective that

focuses on learned behaviors.

Behavioral principles are often applied in
mental health settings, where therapists and
counselors use these techniques to explain
and treat a variety of illnesses.

The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known

as cognitive psychology began to take hold. It

focuses on mental processes. This area of
psychology is concern with memory, thinking,
problem solving, language and decisionmaking.
Influenced by psychologists such as
Jean Piaget
and
Albert Bandura,
this
perspective has grown tremendously in recent
decades.

The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Cross-cultural psychology

is a fairly new
perspective that has grown significantly in
recent years. These psychologists and
researchers look at human behavior across
different cultures.

The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary psychology is focused on the

study of how evolution explains physiological

processes. Psychologists and researchers take
the basic principles of evolution, including
natural selection, and apply them to
psychological phenomena. This perspective
suggests that these mental processes exist
because they serve an evolutionary purpose
they aid in survival and reproduction.

The Humanistic Perspective

During the 1950s, a school of thought known

as
humanistic psychology
emerged.
Influenced greatly by the work of prominent
humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role
of motivation on thought and behavior.
Concepts such as self-actualization are an
essential part of this perspective.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective originated

with the work of Sigmund Freud. This

perspective emphasizes the role of the
unconscious mind,
early
childhood
experiences, and interpersonal relationships
to explain human behavior and to treat people
suffering from mental illnesses.

Different Fields in Psychology

Abnormal Psychology
Psychology of Addiction
Psychology of Advertising
Psychology of Altruism
Psychology of Ambition
Animal Psychology
Art Psychology
Psychology of Atheism
Psychology of Attraction
Psychology of Beauty

Psychology of Behavior
Psychology of Belief
Biological Psychology
Neuropsychology
Child Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Color Psychology
Comparative Psychology
Counseling Psychology
Clinical Psychology

Psychology of Communication
Criminal Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Psychology of Dreams
Educational Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Health Psychology
Human Factors Psychology
Industrial Psychology
Personality Psychology

Quantitative Psychology
School Psychology
Social Psychology
Sports Psychology

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Objectives
discuss the development of the

nervous system
enumerate the parts of the neuron and
their functions in the neural impulse
transfer
identify the different divisions of the
nervous system, their functions and
relevance to human behavior
discuss the possible disorders with any
part of the nervous system

DEVELOPMENT OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cephalization
Cephalization is the localization of the
function and parts of the brain
cephales = brain

FORMATION
OF
THE
LAYERS
The embryo forms into
three
germGERM
layers which
give rise
to different organs and tissues

* mesoderm skeletal system, muscle system,

skin and lymphatic system (spleen, gonads and
corresponding ducts)
* endoderm lining of the respiratory tract,
tympanic membrane and Eustachian tube, part of the
bladder and urethra, thyroids, parathyroids, thymus,
liver and pancreas, and gastro-intestinal tract
* ectoderm central and peripheral nervous
systems, the epithelium of the sensory organs,
hypophysis, enamel of the teeth, and epithelial lining
of the organs

Primitive streak

thickened line formed

at about 14 days after
fertilization ectoderm
cells that migrated to
the center of the
embryonic disk

The formation of the

primitive streak
establishes the
embryo, marking the
beginning of the
embryonic period

A cordlike structure called

the notochord is formed

by these cells as they
move down the primitive
streak. The notochord
marks the central axis of
the developing embryo.

NEURAL TUBE AND NEURAL CREST FORMATION

At about 18 days after fertilization, the ectoderm

overlying the notochord thickens to form the neural

plate. The lateral edges of the plate begin to rise like two
ocean waves coming together. These edges are called
neural crests, and a neural groove lies between them.
The neural crests begin to meet in the midline and fuse
into neural tube which is completely closed by 26 days.
The cells of the neural tube are called neuroectoderm.

The neuroectoderm becomes the brain, the spinal

cord, and parts of the peripheral nervous system. If

the neural tube fails to close, major defects of the
central nervous system can result.

As the neural
crests come
together and fuse, a
population of cells
breaks away from
neuroectoderm all
along the margins of
the crests.

Most of these neural

crest cells become

part of the
peripheral nervous
system or become
melanocytes of the
skin.
In the head, neural crest cells
contribute to the skull, the
dentin of teeth, blood vessels,
and general connective tissue.

Nerve Cells
This photomicrograph shows a number of
multipolar nerve cells. The central cell body is
clearly visible in each of the cells, as are the
dendrites, which are short extensions of the nerve
cell body that function in the reception of stimuli.

Cells of the Nervous

System

Neurons are specialized to respond rapidly

to signals and send signals of their own.

Glial cells hold neurons together, guide their

growth, secrete and absorb chemicals to
maintain a stable chemical environment, and
send a limited number of signals between
neurons.

Common Features of Cells

An outer membrane selectively allows

only some substances to pass in and
out.
The cell body contains the nucleus

Specialized Features

An axon is a cell fiber that carries signals

away from the cell body. Most neurons
have just one axon
A dendrite is a cell fiber that receives
signals from other neurons and carries
information toward the neuron's cell
body. Most neurons have many dendrites

Synapse

Electron Micrograph of a Synapse

This electron micrograph shows a synapse in the human

brain. The synapse is a specialized junction through which

neurons communicate, usually via chemicals known as
neurotransmitters. In this image we can see a presynaptic
membrane (bottom) and a postsynaptic membrane (top),
separated by a gap, the synaptic cleft (middle). Chemical
transmitters bridge this gap by diffusing from release sites
on the presynaptic side to receptors on the postsynaptic

Neurotransmitters
Chemicals made by neurons or nerve

cells
Chemical signals to activate or inhibit a
function of neighboring cells
Chemicals involved in synaptic
transmission, released by the synaptic
vesicles when stimulated by the impulse

Common
SEROTONIN
Neurotransmitters
ACETYLCHOLINE
Most widely used
Involves
concentration of the
muscles
Found in the CNS
and the peripheral

Responsible for

moods
Sleeping and
relaxation/drowsiness
Blocking pain
sensation
Found in the
hindbrain

GAMMA-AMINO
BUTYRIC ACID
Most abundant in
CNS
Inhibitory to
dopamine
Excess GABA results
to uncontrollable
movement of arms
and legs
NOTES:
Progressive loss of
Drugs may influence neurotransmitter behavior
mental activity
DOPAMINE
Responsible for
voluntary
movements
Degeneration lead
to Parkinsons
disease
Dopamine theory
Excessive dopamine
in the brain may
cause schizophrenia

block neurotransmitters or prevent re-uptake

ex. Belladona decreases intestinal cramps of disorders
like irritable bowel syndrome (blocks acetylcholine)
ex. Prozac blocks re-uptake of serotonin (remains in
the synapse relief of depression and control of OC
behavior)

Pain Transmission
When a toe is stubbed,
cells called nociceptors
sense damage (1) and
send an impulse via a
sensory nerve (2) to the
dorsal horn (3) region of
the spinal cord. This
processes the signal,
and sends another
signal down the leg via a
motor nerve (4) causing
leg muscles (5) to pull
away from the source of
injury (6). The dorsal
horn sends a second
impulse to the brain,
reaching nerve endings
(7). These release
neurotransmitters to
further carry the
message. The brain
processes the impulse
as an unpleasant

Nervous System
is the seat of all mental activity

(consciousness, memory and thinking)

maintain homeostasis
detect, interpret and respond to change in
the internal and external conditions
one of the major regulating and
coordinating systems of the body (the
other is the endocrine system)

Nervous
System
Central Nervous
Brain

Peripheral Nervous

Spinal CordAfferent Division

Efferent Division
Somatic
Autonomic

Sympathetic

Parasympa-the

Peripheral nervous syste

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
m
the neurons outside the CNS, send

information from the eyes, ears, and other

sense organs to the CNS.

A.THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The somatic nervous system takes in

pieces of sensory information and sends
them to the central nervous system for
processing.

B. THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system (ANS)
carries messages back and forth between
the CNS and the heart, lungs and other
organs and glands. The ANS has two
subdivisions.
The sympathetic nervous system readies

your body for action in the face of stress. This

system spends energy.
The parasympathetic nervous system calms
you down once the crisis has passed. It
preserves energy.
Both systems may act on the same body areas,
with their relative "balance" regulating the state
of the targeted organs.

DIVISION OF THE CNS

SPINAL CORD
Reflexes are simple, involuntary behaviors
controlled by spinal cord neurons, without
requiring instructions from the brain. A
reflex pathway includes a sensory neuron, a
minimal number of connecting neurons, and
a motor neuron.
The spinal cord is an example of a feedback
system -- a regulatory system that sends
information about the consequences of an
action back to the source of the action for
further adjustment.

BRAIN OR ENCEPHALON
(SUB-DIVISIONS)
I.
Forebrain or Procencephalon
II.
Midbrain or Mecencephalon
III. Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon

Hindbrain or Rhombencephalon
Found above the spinal cord

The medulla performs vital coordination of the

basic life functions (e.g., blood pressure, heart
rate, breathing).
The reticular formation is a web of neurons
that helps alert and arouse other brain areas.
The cerebellum maintains balance,
coordinates fine motor movements, stores a
memory code for well-rehearsed behaviors
and participates in cognitive tasks, such as
reading.

Midbrain or
Mecencephalon
A small structure called the midbrain lies

above the hindbrain. Part of the midbrain and

its connections to the forebrain allow one to
move smoothly. Together, the midbrain and
parts of the hindbrain other than the
cerebellum are called the brainstem.

Forebrain or Procencephalon
The forebrain controls the most complex

aspects of behavior and mental life. The outer

part of the forebrain is called the
cerebral cortex. Areas deep in the forebrain
affect emotion, motivational "drives," and
sensory processing.

 thalamus
processes
inputs from sense
Areas
of
the
Forebrain
organs and then relays sensory

information to appropriate "higher"

forebrain areas
- primary sensory relay into the rest of the
brain
hypothalamus has some of the brain's
most important control systems
It regulates many physiological feedback
systems, coordinating hunger, thirst,
temperature regulation and sexual
behavior
It directly influences both the autonomic
and endocrine systems. It contains the
suprachiasmatic nucleus -- an endogenous
"clock" that sets biological rhythms for the
body.

The amygdala and the hippocampus help

to regulate memory and emotion. The

amygdala links different kinds of sensory
information in memory, such as the shape
and feel of objects.
The amygdala, hippocampus, and some
portions of the cerebral cortex are part of a
group of brain structures called the limbic
system, which is activated when emotions
are being generated.
The hippocampus also helps you form new
memories.

Limbic System
The limbic system is a group of brain structures that play a role
in emotion, memory, and motivation. For example, electrical
stimulation of the amygdala in laboratory animals can provoke
fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus regulates
hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive, and other
functions.

Cerebrum
largest part of the brain
concerned with the processing of information

of the brain
coordination of voluntary responses
thinking and other cognitive functions

Cerebral
Cortex
The cerebrum's outer surface, is a thin sheet of

neurons. In humans, the sheet folds in on itself,

giving the brain its characteristic wrinkled
appearance.

The left and right cerebral hemispheres are

physically separate halves of the cerebrum. The

corpus callosum connects the two halves.

The folds of cortex produce gyri (ridges), and sulci

or fissures (valleys or wrinkles), on the brain's

outer surface. Several deep sulci make convenient
markers for dividing the cortex of each hemisphere
into four anatomical regions, or lobes: frontal,
parietal, occipital and temporal.

Brain Activity in Bipolar Disorder

These positron emission tomography scans of the brain of a
person with bipolar disorder show the individual shifting from
depression, top row, to mania, middle row, and back to
depression, bottom row, over the course of 10 days. Blue and
green indicate low levels of brain activity, while red, orange, and
yellow indicate high levels of brain activity.

Brain Activity in Memory

Positron emission tomography (PET) scans reveal brain regions
involved in memory. Left, an encoding task (the initial
processing of information into memory) activates the left
prefrontal cortex. Right, an attempt to retrieve memories
activates the right prefrontal cortex.

Grand Mal Seizure EEG

The electroencephalograph
(EEG) pattern of a normal
individual, left, shows low
amplitude tracings from
each of the electrodes that
have been placed on the
head. In an EEG pattern
from an individual
suffering from a grand mal
seizure, right, these
tracings exhibit both a high
amplitude and an erratic
pattern lasting for several

Positron Emission Tomography

This positron emission tomography
(PET) scan of the brain shows the
activity of brain cells in the resting
state and during three types of
auditory stimulation. PET uses
radioactive substances introduced
into the brain to measure such brain
functions as cerebral metabolism,
blood flow and volume, oxygen use,
and the formation of
neurotransmitters. This imaging
method X-rays the brain from many
different angles, feeding the
information into a computer that
produces a series of cross-sectional
images.


Brain Activity in Sleep
The brain is not inactive during sleep. The electroencephalogram
(EEG) tracings here show the patterns of electrical activity during
different stages of sleep. Note that the brain waves of an alert
person and those of a person in rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
(when dreaming occurs) are similar in frequency and amplitude. In
non-REM sleep, the waves have a higher amplitude and a lower
frequency, indicating that neurons in the brain are firing more
slowly and in a synchronized fashion.

Left and Right Brain Functions

Although the cerebrum is symmetrical in structure, with
two lobes emerging from the brain stem and matching
motor and sensory areas in each, certain intellectual
functions are restricted to one hemisphere. A persons
dominant hemisphere is usually occupied with language
and logical operations, while the other hemisphere
controls emotion and artistic and spatial skills. In nearly
all right-handed and many left-handed people, the left