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ECONOMICS
and
MACROECONO
MICS
Paul Krugman | Robin
Wells
Chapter 1
First Principles
WHAT
YOU
WILL
LEARN
IN THIS
CHAPTER
You
Individual Choice
Individual choice is the decision by an
individual of what to do, which necessarily
involves a decision of what not to do.
Basic principles behind the individual choices:
1. Resources are scarce.
2. The real cost of something is what you
must give up to get it.
3. How much? is a decision at the margin.
4. People usually take advantage of
opportunities to make themselves better
off.
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Choices Are Necessary Because Resources
Are Scarce
A resource is anything that can be used to
produce something else.
Examples: land, labor, capital
TIME
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Choices Are Necessary Because Resources
Are Scarce
Scarcity requires us to make trade-offs (which
is a more nuanced way of saying choices).
In other words, you might be able to get more of
something, but only by giving up something else.
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Scarcity and the Concept of a Malthusian
Bottleneck
Thomas Malthus: Essays on the Principle of
Population (1798)
Observed that plants and animals produce far
more offspring than can survive given the
available resources.
Humans are also capable of over-producing if left
unchecked.
Our ingenuity and compassion for each other also
seems to have superseded the ability of natural
selection to effectively control our population.
Malthus conclusion: unless population is
regulated, famine and poverty could become
globally epidemic, the human species could self-
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Scarcity and the Concept of a Malthusian
Bottleneck
Ecological economics is a relatively new
branch of economics that seeks to merge the
fundamentals of ecology with those of
economics.
The human economy is part of the natural world.
Given our current technological capabilities, the
Earth is an extremely scarce ecological resource
(its the only place in the universe we can live for
an extended period).
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Scarcity and the Concept of a Malthusian
Bottleneck
Ecological economists point out that there are
two ways an economy can grow:
Greater resource use
Technological advancement (using resources
more efficiently)
Principle# 1: Scarcity
Example Question
Scarcity exists when:
a. making choices among two or more alternatives
is not necessary.
b. individuals can have more of any good without
giving up anything.
c. individuals can have more of one good but only
by giving up something else.
d. resources are unlimited.
CLASS DEMONSTRATION
Principle# 4: Incentives
People Usually Respond to Incentives,
Exploiting Opportunities to Make
Themselves Better Off
An incentive is anything that offers rewards to
people who change their behavior.
Examples:
1. Price of gasoline rises people buy more fuelefficient cars
2. There are more well-paid jobs available for college
graduates with economics degrees more
students major in economics
3. The Attendance Game gives you (both
individually and collectively) more incentive to
show up to class regularly.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Incentives can be positive or negative (typically
called disincentives).
Socio-cultural incentives
Fame/celebrity
General social pressure
Incentives come in all forms:
Criminal punishment
What about letting
Economic incentives
Sale prices
Taxes and subsidies
Monetary rewards, fines, or penalties
Cost reduction
Higher profits
Principle# 4: Incentives
Cashing In at School?
In a 20072008 study, Harvard economist
Roland Fryer Jr. found that monetary incentives
cash rewards could improve students
academic performance in schools in
economically disadvantaged areas.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Cashing In at School?
Fryer conducted his research in four different
school districts, employing a different set of
incentives and a different measure of
performance in each.
In New York, students were paid according to
their scores on standardized tests.
In Chicago, they were paid according to their
grades.
In Washington, D.C., they were paid
according to attendance and good behavior,
as well as their grades.
In Dallas, second-graders were paid each
time they read a book.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Cashing In at School?
Fryers experiment revealed some critical insights
about how to motivate behavior with incentives.
How incentives are designed is very
important:
the relationship between effort and outcome,
as well as the speed of reward, matters a lot.
The design of incentives may depend quite a
lot on the characteristics of the people you
are trying to motivate: what motivates a
student from an economically privileged
background may not motivate a student from
an economically disadvantaged one.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Boy or Girl? It Depends on the Cost
In 1978, the government of China introduced
the one-child policy to address the economic
and demographic challenges presented by
Chinas large population.
China was very, very poor in 1978, and its
leaders worried that the country could not afford
to adequately educate and care for its growing
population.
The average Chinese woman in the 1970s was
giving birth to more than five children during
her lifetime.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Boy or Girl? It Depends on the Cost
So the government restricted most couples,
particularly those in urban areas, to one child,
imposing penalties on those who defied the
mandate.
As a result, by 2009 the average number of births for a
woman in China was only 1.8.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Boy or Girl? It Depends on the Cost
In addition, tradition dictates that brides
become part of their husbands families and
that sons take care of their elderly parents.
As a result of the one-child policy, China soon
had too many unwanted girls.
Some were given up for adoption abroad, but all too
many simply disappeared during the first year of
life, the victims of neglect and mistreatment.
Principle# 4: Incentives
Example Question
Say the U.S. government implemented a carbon
tax on electricity generation. For each unit of
CO2 emitted, electric generators would have to
pay a tax. This would give electric generators an
incentive to:
a. do nothing. The tax would not incentivize any
changes.
b. switch to less carbon-intensive generation
technologies.
c. generate more electricity from fossil fuels.
d. argue that anthropogenic climate change isnt
real, call for the EPA to be abolished, and lament
that America is becoming a socialist country.
Principle# 6: Equilibrium
Markets Move Toward Equilibrium
An economic situation is in equilibrium when
no individual would be better off doing
something different.
Any time there is a change, the economy will
move to a new equilibrium.
Example: What happens when a new checkout
line opens at a busy supermarket?
Or are you too busy checking out the tabloids to
notice?
Principle# 6: Equilibrium
Choosing Sides
Why do people in America drive on the right side
of the road? Of course, its the law.
Long before it was the law, it was an equilibrium!
Why?
Principle# 6: Equilibrium
Choosing Sides
Why would some places choose the right and
other places choose the left?
Thats not completely clear, although it may have
depended on the dominant form of traffic.
Men riding horses and carrying swords on their left
hip preferred to ride on the left (think about getting
on or off the horse, and youll see why).
On the other hand, right-handed people walking
but leading horses apparently preferred to walk on
the right.
Principle# 6: Equilibrium
Choosing Sides
Once a rule of the road was established, there
were strong incentives for each individual to stay
on the usual side of the road.
Those who didnt would keep colliding with
oncoming traffic.
Principle# 6: Equilibrium
Discussion Question
perfect! (duh)
The
Lemons Problem
The
Lemons Problem
Economy-Wide Interactions
Principles that underlie economy-wide
interactions
(i.e., the primary focus of this class)
Principle# 10: One persons spending is
another persons income.
Principle# 11: Overall spending sometimes
gets out of line with the economys productive
capacity.
Principle# 12: Government policies can change
spending.
SUMMARY
1. All economic analysis is based on a set of
basic principles that apply to three levels of
economic activity. First, we study how
individuals make choices; second, we study
how these choices interact; and, third, we
study how the economy functions overall.
2. Everyone has to make choices about what to
do and what not to do. Individual choice is
the basis of economics.
3. The reason choices must be made is that
resourcesanything that can be used to
produce something elseare scarce.
SUMMARY
4. Because you must choose among limited
alternatives, the true cost of anything is what
you must give up to get it all costs are
opportunity costs.
5. Many economic decisions involve questions not
of whether but of how much? Such
decisions must be taken by performing a
trade-off at the marginby comparing the
costs and benefits of doing a bit more or a bit
less. Decisions of this type are called marginal
decisions, and the study of them, marginal
analysis, plays a central role in economics.
SUMMARY
6. The study of how people should make
decisions is also a good way to understand
actual behavior. Individuals usually respond to
incentives -- exploiting opportunities to make
themselves better off.
7. The next level of economic analysis is the
study of interactionhow my choices depend
on your choices, and vice versa. When
individuals interact, the end result may be
different from what anyone intends.
SUMMARY
8. Individuals interact because there are gains
from trade: by engaging in the trade of
goods and services with one another, the
members of an economy can all be made
better off. Specialization each person
specializing in the task he or she is good at is
the source of gains from trade.
9. Because individuals usually respond to
incentives, markets normally move toward
equilibriuma situation in which no
individual can make himself or herself better
off by taking a different action.
SUMMARY
10.An economy is efficient if all opportunities to
make some people better off without making
other people worse off are taken. Resources
should be used as efficiently as possible to
achieve societys goals. But efficiency is not the
sole way to evaluate an economy: equity, or
fairness, is also desirable, and there is often a
trade-off between equity and efficiency.
11.Markets usually lead to efficiency, with some
well-defined exceptions.
SUMMARY
12.When markets fail and do not achieve
efficiency government intervention can improve
societys welfare.
13.Because people in a market economy earn
income by selling things, including their own
labor, one persons spending is another
persons income. As a result, changes in
spending behavior can spread throughout the
economy.
SUMMARY
14.Overall spending in the economy can get out of
line with the economys productive capacity.
Spending below the economys productive
capacity, leads to a recession; spending in
excess of the economys productive capacity
leads to inflation.
15.Governments have the ability to strongly affect
overall spending, an ability they use in an effort
to steer the economy between recession and
inflation.
KEY TERMS
Individual choice
Resource
Scarce
Opportunity cost
Trade-off
Marginal decisions
Marginal analysis
Incentive
Interaction
Trade
Gains from trade
Specialization
Equilibrium