Lecture 2

Elements
of Nuclear
Power
Station

Introduction to Nuclear Power Station

In a nuclear power plant instead of a furnace, there is a

nuclear reactor, in which heat is generated by splitting

atoms of radioactive material under suitable and control
condition
Nuclear power plants are considered as alternatives to

conventional plants
Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to

derive nuclear energy. The most common type of nuclear

fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor
The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu. Not

all nuclear fuels are used in fission chain reactions

NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

By breaking up heavy nuclei into nuclei of intermediate size ,

the processes is known as Fission.

By combining light nuclei, the process is known as Fusion

When a neutron strikes an atom of uranium, the uranium
splits into two lighter atoms and releases heat simultaneously.
Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction, which can
release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic
radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released

in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further
nucleus.
This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process
repeats. If the process is controlled it is used for nuclear
power or if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear weapons.
1 kg of atomic material is equivalent in heating ability to about
27,50,000 kg of coal

Main Parts of a Nuclear Power Station

There are Five main parts of power system
1.Nuclear Reactor: The reactor is where the reaction takes
place

2.Heat Exchanger:

A cooling medium take up this heat

and
deliver to the heat exchange,
where steam for
turbine is raised

3.Steam Turbine:

The superheated water from the steam

generator turns turbines

4.Condenser:

the steam is condensed into

condensate in the
condenser.

5.Generator:

The turbines then operate the generator,

which
creates the electricity

Reactor
In a reactor , heat is produced by splitting of
uranium atoms.
A cooling medium take up this heat and
deliver it to the heat exchanger, where steam
for the turbine is raised. the reactor and heat
exchanger are equivalent to the furnace and
boiler in conventional steam plant.
When the uranium atoms split, there is
radiation
Therefore the reactor and its cooling circuit
must be heavily shielded against the
radiation.

Inside
rector

Steam
outlet

Fuel Rods

Control
Rods

The rest of the plant is similar to the

ordinary steam plant.
the steam generated in the heat
exchanger is admitted to the turbine.
after work has been done by the expansion
of steam through the turbine.
The steam is condensed into condensate in
the condenser.
the condensate pump send back to heat
exchanger.
thus forming a closed feed system.
other function s are similar to steam station

Main parts of reactor and reactor

control
There are 6 main parts of Reactor
1.Reactor core
2.Moderator
3.Cooling system
4.Control of reactor
5.Shielding
6.Reflactor

1. The coreof the reactor contains all of

the nuclear fuel and generates all of
the heat.
It contains low-enricheduranium
(<5% U-235), control systems, and
structural materials.
The core can contain hundreds of
thousands of individual fuel pins.
Its the focal point of the reactor, where
fuel is contained and nuclear fission
reactions take place

Generally, fuel is made of small

enriched uranium oxide rods, stacked
so as to form cylinders, approx. 4
meters long and with a diameter of
about one centimeter.
These rods are wrapped in metal
sheathes (steel or zirconium alloy),
which allow heat to pass through
while blocking the radioactive
elements produced by fission

2.Moderator This is a material

placed in the reactor to slow down
the neutrons produced by fission, in
order to reach the most suitable
speed allowing the chain reaction to
continue.
Depending on the various reactor
models, the moderator may consist
of graphite, water or heavy water
(water where the hydrogen is present
as its heavier isotope, deuterium

A moderator is a medium that is, used to

absorb a portion of the kinetic energy of
fast neutrons so that they come in the
category of thermal neutrons, which help
to sustain a controlled chain reaction.
The mechanism of speed control works in
such a way that fast moving neutrons
strike the nuclei of moderator material
which is not efficient at absorbing them
but simply slows them down with
repeated collisions thus bringing them
into the thermal zone.

3.Cooling system: The immense amount of heat

energy present in the nuclear reactor core needs to
be, transferred in some manner so that it is,
converted into electrical energy.
This also helps to keep the working temperature of the
core within safe limits for the materials used in the
construction of the reactor.
Hence, a coolantplays an important role in
components of nuclear power plant andserves the
dual purpose of removing the heat from the reactor
as well as transferring it to the electricity generation
circuit either directly or indirectly depending on the
type of nuclear reactor being, used for the purpose.

Heat-transfer fluid (or coolant)This fluid (liquid or gas) cools the core
and carries outside the heat that is
produced there.
The most commonly used fluid is
water, but some types of reactors
use different fluids (heavy water,
molten sodium, carbon dioxide,
helium and other fluids).

There are some properties of the coolant, which

are necessary to ensure safety of the reactor .
Some of the desired properties of an ideal
coolant are as follows:
a. A coolant should not absorb neutrons or
should have a minimum neutron absorption
cross section.
b. Since a coolant is exposed to high
temperatures and well as severe levels of
radiation, it is obvious that it should posses
excellent resistance to both high
temperatures as well as high levels of
radiation

c. A coolant should be non-corrosive in nature

otherwise, it might tend to damage and corrode
the very core which is meant to be protected by it
through proper removal of heat;
d. Coolants used in nuclear reactors could be
either in the liquid state or in the solid state. In
case the coolant is, a liquid it should have a high
boiling point so that, it is not evaporated due to
the high heat inside the reactor. But in case it is a
solid it should have a relatively low melting point
due to obvious reasons; and
e. Since a coolant needs to circulate using a
pump it should be capable of being, pumped
easily so that least amount of energy is, spent in
pumping the coolant.

4.Control rods These are rods used in

specific materials (silver, indium,
cadmium or boron carbide) to control
fission inside the core. Since they absorb
neutrons, they are capable of controlling
the chain reaction which - depending on
how deep down the rods are inserted into
the core - can be accelerated, slowed
down or even stopped, thus changing the
capacity of the reactor. Indeed, if
necessary, the reactor can be immediately
stopped when they are fully inserted.

Here are some basic reasons to explain why proper

control is necessary within nuclear power reactors:
a. A nuclear chain reaction should be, started when a
reactor fires from the cold condition.
In the absence of such a reaction the process would soon
die out;
b. It is not only necessary and sufficient to start the
chain reaction but it is equally necessary to ensure that
the reaction is sustained in the long run as long as the
power requirements are present;
c. In case of emergency situations such as a sudden
mechanical or structural damage, the reactor needs to
be shut down quickly in order to prevent any major
disaster .
d. Fuel rods inside the reactor should be prevented
from melting or being disintegrated and therefore a
control mechanism is necessary.

5. The Shielding
A nuclear reaction is a source of
intense radiation apart from the heat
generated in the exothermic
process.
Because of the risk, radiation shielding
is required to prevent this harmful
radiation from leaving the reactor
and affecting the outside men and
materials.

When a nucleus splits into two parts during the

fission process it results in the production of
large amounts of heat energy since the
reaction is exothermic in nature.
But this is not the only product of nuclear fuel
combustion but there are several other byproducts such as
alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays and of
course the fast moving neutrons.
The fast moving neutrons are controlled,
moderated and reflected in order to contain
them within the reactor core so that a
sustained and controlled chain reaction takes
place.

6.Reflector:
This completely surrounds the reactor
core within the thermal shielding
arrangement, and help to bounce
escaping neutrons back into the core.
this conserves the nuclear fuel, as the
low speed neutrons , thus returned
are useful in continuing the chain
reaction

Chain Reaction and Reactor control

When a nucleus captures a neutron the
resulting compound nucleus is unstable.
It split into two fragment and releases
energy and eject some neutrons.
If conditions are favourable, neutrons
ejected by the first fission may be
captured by other nuclei and chain
reaction begins.
NPS operate on base load and generally
on constant load.
there must have limited flexibility for
limited change in load.

Multiplication Factor (K) :

it is the ratio of the total number of neutrons produced
during a small fraction of a second to the total number of
neutrons lost or absorbed during the same time.
The reactor control depends on the changing value of K.
To start the reactor , raise the value of K greater then 1.
To lower the load on reactor, reduce K slightly less than 1.
To shut down the reactor , reduce K to less than 1,
and chain reaction Die down.
To run on constant out put load , keep the K = 1
total no neutron produced during small fraction of second

K=

total no of neutron lost or absorb during same time

Types of power Reactor

There are so many different types of
nuclear reactors with
different
fuels, coolants, fuel cycles, etc.
some of them are discuss in detail

1.Pressurized Water Reactor(PWR)

The most common type of reactor is the
PWR uses regular old water as a coolant.
The primary cooling water is kept at very
high pressure so it does not boil.
It goes through a heat exchanger,
transferring heat to a secondary coolant
loop, which then spins the turbine.
A pressurized water reactor (PWR)
generates steam outside the reactor
vessel, unlike a BWR design

The
Pressu
rized
Water
Reacto
r

(PWR)

A primary system (reactor cooling system)

cycles superheated water from the core to
a heat exchanger.
A secondary system then transfers steam to
a combined high pressure/low-pressure
turbine generator.
Steam exhausted from the low-pressure
turbine runs through a condenser that cools
and condenses it back to water.
Pumps return the cooled water back to the
steam generator for reuse.
The condenser cools the steam leaving the
turbine-generator through a third system
by flowing past a heat-exchanger that

2.Boiling Water Reactor(BWR)

It is second most common reactor, the BWR
is similar to the PWR in many ways.
However, they only have one coolant loop.
The hot nuclear fuel boils water as it goes
out the top of the reactor, where the
steam heads over to the turbine to spin it.
A boiling water reactor generates steam
directly inside the reactor vessel as water
flows upward
through the reactors core ,The water also
cools the reactor core, and the reactor

Boiling
Water
Reacto
r
(BWR)

3.Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor:

The first electricity-producing nuclear
reactor in the world was SFR.
As the name implies, these reactors are
cooled by liquid sodium metal.
Sodium is heavier than hydrogen, a fact
that leads to the neutrons moving
around at higher speeds (hencefast).
These can use metal or oxide fuel, and
burn anything you throw at them
(thorium, uranium, plutonium, higher
actinides).

4.High Temperature Gas Cooled

Reactor:
HTGRs use Gas such as helium or carbon
dioxide is passed through the reactor
rapidly to cool it. Due to their low
power density, these reactors are seen
as promising for using nuclear energy
outside of electricity: in transportation,
in industry, and in residential regimes.
They are not particularly good at just
producing electricity.

5.Canada Deuterium-Uranium Reactors

(CANDU)
CANDUs are a Canadian design found in
Canada and around the world. In this type
of reactor heavy water is use as moderator.
They contain heavy water, where the
Hydrogen in H2O has an extra neutron
(making it Deuterium instead of Hydrogen).
Deuterium absorbs many fewer neutrons than
Hydrogen, and CANDUs can operate using
only natural uranium instead of enriched.

6.Magnox Reactor:
this reactor use, natural uranium as
fuel, graphite as moderator, and CO2
gas as coolant.
The reactor pressure vessel is
surrounded by a thick concrete
shield, which attenuates the gamma
and neutron radiation from the core

7.Advanced Gas cooled Rector (AGR)

The advance gas cooled reactor is developed
form of magnox and uses the same technology.
it uses Uranium Oxide (UO2) as a fuel material
enriched by a small % of U235 and CO2 gas as
coolant.
Another difference between the magnox type
reactor and AGR is the core temperature in AGR
is much higher.
Special measures are, taken to cool the graphite
moderator in order to limit the rate at which it
reacts with CO2

8.Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

When U-235 is fissioned, it produces heat and
additional neutrons of some U-238 is kept in the
same reactor, a part of the additional neutron
available after reacting with U-235 convert u-238
into plutonium, which is fissile.
Thus the reactor not only produces heat , but also
at the same time can used to make more fissile
material .
If the process is made efficient , more fissile
material is produced than can be consumed and
is known as breeding.
a fast breeder reactor is a small vessel necessary
quantity of enriched uranium or plutonium is kept
without moderator.

The vessel is surrounded by a thick

depleted uranium, fertile material
which absorbs neutrons from the new
fissile material and convert the fertile
material into fissile material The
reactor core is cooled by liquid metal.
in fast breeder reactor, neutron
shielding is provided by the use of
boron ,light water, oil or graphite.

Site selection for NPP

The following points should be kept in view while

selecting the site for a nuclear power station :
(i) Availability of water. As sufficient water is
required for cooling purposes, therefore, the plant
site should be located where ample quantity of
water is available, e.g., across a river or by sea-side.
(ii) Disposal of waste. The waste produced by
fission in a nuclear power station is generally
radioactive which must be disposed off properly to
avoid health hazards. The waste should either be
buried in a deep trench or disposed off in sea quite
away from the sea shore.
Therefore, the site selected for such a plant should
have adequate arrangement for the disposal of
radioactive waste.

(iii) Distance from populated areas.

The site selected for a nuclear power station should
be quite away from the populated areas as there is
a danger of presence of radioactivity in the
atmosphere near the plant.
However, as a precautionary measure, a dome is used
in the plant which does not allow the radioactivity to
spread by wind or underground waterways.
(iv) Transportation facilities.
The site selected for a nuclear power station should
have adequate facilities in order to transport the
heavy equipment during erection and to facilitate
the movement of the workers employed in the plant.

Advantages
(i) The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore, there is a

considerable saving in the cost of fuel transportation.

(ii) A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to
any other type of the same size.
(iii) It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used
for producing bulk electrical energy.
(iv) This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk
electric power.
(v) It can be located near the load centres because it does not
need coal mines. Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is
reduced.
(vi) There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the
world. Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply of
electrical energy for thousands of years.
(vii) It ensures reliability of operation.

Disadvantages
(i) The fuel used is expensive and is
difficult to recover.
(ii) The capital cost on a nuclear plant is
very high as compared to other types
of plants.
(iii) The erection and commissioning of
the plant requires greater technical
know-how.
(iv) The fission by-products are generally
radioactive and may cause a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.

(v) Maintenance charges are high due to lack of

standardization. Moreover, high salaries of
specially trained personnel employed to
handle the plant further raise the cost.
(vi) Nuclear power plants are not well suited for
varying loads as the reactor does not respond
to
the load fluctuations efficiently.
(vii) The disposal of the by-products, which are
radioactive, is a big problem. They have either
to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a
sea away from sea-shore.