Fatigue

MSE527

a :=
Alternating stress
m :=
Mean stress
R := Stress ratio
:=
strain
Nf :=
number of cycles to failure
A := Amplitude ratio
pl :=
Plastic strain amplitude
el :=
Elastic strain amplitude
K := Proportionality constant, cyclic stress-strain
n := Exponent in cyclic stress-strain
c :=
Exponent in Coffin-Manson Eq.;
also, crack length
E :=
Youngs modulus
b :=
exponent in Basquin Eq.
m :=
exponent in Paris Law
K :=
Stress intensity
K :=
Stress intensity amplitude
a :=
crack length

Fatigue
Fatigue is the name given to failure in response to
alternating loads (as opposed to monotonic
straining).
Instead of measuring the resistance to fatigue
failure through an upper limit to strain (as in
ductility), the typical measure of fatigue resistance
is expressed in terms of numbers of cycles to
failure. For a given number of cycles (required in
an application), sometimes the stress (that can be
safely endured by the material) is specified.

Fatigue: general characteristics

Primary design criterion in rotating parts.

Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the notion of a
material becoming tired, i.e. failing at less than its nominal
strength.
Cyclical strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure.
Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in ceramics.
Also an issue for static parts, e.g. bridges.
Cyclic loading stress limit<static stress capability.

Fatigue: general characteristics

Most applications of structural materials involve cyclic
loading; any net tensile stress leads to fatigue.
Fatigue failure surfaces have three characteristic features
A (near-)surface defect as the origin of the crack
Striations corresponding to slow, intermittent crack
growth
Dull, fibrous brittle fracture surface (rapid growth).
Life of structural components generally limited by cyclic
loading, not static strength.
Most environmental factors shorten life.

S-N Curves
S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines locus of
cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress.
Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also alternating tensioncompression.
[Hertzberg]
Plot stress versus the
log(number of cycles
to failure), log(Nf).
For frequencies < 200Hz,
metals are insensitive to
frequency; fatigue life in
polymers is frequency
dependent.

Fatigue testing, S-N curve

a

mean3>mean2>mean1

mean1
mean2
mean3

The greater the number of

cycles in the loading history,
the smaller the stress that
the material can withstand
without failure.

logNf

Notethepresenceofa
fatiguelimitinmany
steelsanditsabsence
inaluminumalloys.
[Dieter]

Endurance Limits
Some materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e. a
stress below which the life is infinite: [fig. 12.8]

Steels typically show an endurance limit, = 40% of yield; this is

typically associated with the presence of a solute (carbon,
nitrogen) that pines dislocations and prevents dislocation motion
at small displacements or strains (which is apparent in an upper
yield point).
Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits; this is related to
the absence of dislocation-pinning solutes.
At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.
Therefore strengthening the surface (shot peening) is beneficial
to delay crack nucleation and extend life.

Fatigue
fracture
surface

[Hertzberg]

Fatigue crack stages

Stage1

Stage2

[Dieter]

Reverse Bending Fatigue

Rotating Bending Fatigue

Multi-Origin Fatigue

Unidirectional Bending

Fatigue Starting at a Sharp Corner

Reverse Bending Fatigue

Rotating Bending Fatigue

Startup, normal operation, and shut down cycles stress profiles on blades
Two issues LCF and HCF
LCF can initiate crack
HCF propagate the crack

Wheel 2003

Cyclic strain vs. cyclic stress

Cyclic strain control complements cyclic stress
characterization: applicable to thermal fatigue, or
fixed displacement conditions.
Cyclic stress-strain testing defined by a controlled
strain range, pl.
Soft, annealed metals tend to harden; strengthened
metals tend to soften.
Thus, many materials tend towards a fixed cycle,
i.e. constant stress, strain amplitudes.

Cyclic stress-strain curve

[Courtney]

Large number of cycles typically needed to reach

asymptotic hysteresis loop (~100).
Softening or hardening possible.

Cyclic stress-strain
Wavy-slip materials
generally reach asymptote
in cyclic stress-strain:
planar slip materials (e.g.
brass) exhibit history
dependence.
Cyclic stress-strain curve
defined by the extrema,
i.e. the tips of the
hysteresis loops. [Courtney
fig. 12.27]

Cyclic stress-strain curves

tend to lie below those for
monotonic tensile tests.
Polymers tend to soften in
cyclic straining.

[Courtney]

Cyclic Strain Control

Strain is a more logical independent variable for
characterization of fatigue.
Define an elastic strain range as el = /E.
Define a plastic strain range, pl.
Typically observe a change in slope between the
elastic and plastic regimes.
Low cycle fatigue (small Nf) dominated by plastic
strain: high cycle fatigue (large Nf) dominated by
elastic strain.

Strain
control of
fatigue
[Courtney]

Cyclic Strain control: low cycle

n
K
Constitutive relation

for cyclic stress-strain:

n 0.1-0.2
Fatigue life: Coffin Manson relation:
p
c
f 2N f
2
f ~ true fracture strain; close to tensile ductility
c -0.5 to -0.7
c = -1/(1+5n); large n longer life.

Cyclic Strain control: high cycle

For elastic-dominated strains
e
at high cycles, adapt
a E
f 2N b
2
Basquins equation:
Intercept on strain axis of extrapolated elastic
line = f/E.
High cycle = elastic strain control:
slope (in elastic regime) = b = -n/(1+5n)
The high cycle fatigue strength, f, scales with
the yield stress high strength good in highcycle

Strain amplitude - cycles

[Courtney]

Total strain (plastic+elastic) life

Low cycle = plastic control: slope = c
Add the elastic and plastic strains.
el pl f

2N f
2
2
2
E

f 2N f

Cross-over between elastic and plastic control is typically at

Nf = 103 cycles.
Ductility useful for low-cycle; strength for high cycle
Examples of Maraging steel for high cycle endurance,
annealed 4340 for low cycle fatigue strength.