Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Principlesof
Electronic
Materialsand
Devices
SecondEdition
S.O.Kasap
2002McGrawHill
D i e l e c tr i c
+Q o
Co
+Q
Q o
i ( t)
E
(a)
(b )
(c )
Fig. 7.1: (a) Parallel plate capacitor with free space between plates.
(b) As a slab of insulating m aterial is inserted between the plates,
there is an external current flow indicating that m ore charge is stored
on the plates. (c) T he capacitance has been increased due to the
insertion of a m edium between the plates.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
+ Q
n e t
= 0
p = Q a
a
Fig.7.2:Thedefinitionofelectricdipolemoment.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
E
C
E lec tr o n c lo u d
A to m ic
n u cleu s
(a) A
n eu tr al ato m
in E
0 .
C e n te r o f n e g a ti v e
c h a rg e
in d u c e d
( b ) In d u c e d d ip o le m o m e n t in a fie ld
Fig.7.3:Theoriginofelectronicpolarization.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
B o u n d p o l a r i z a ti o n
c h a r g e s o n th e s u r f a c e s
+Q
+Q
(b )
(a)
A re a = A
to ta l
(c )
Q
+Q
Fig. 7.4: (a) When a dilectric is placed in an electric field, bound polarization
charges appear on the opposite surfaces. (b) The origin of these polarization
charges is the polarization of the molecules of the medium. (c) We can
represent the whole dielectric in terms of its surface polarization charges
+QP and -QP.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
lo c
E le c tr ic f ie ld a t
a to m ic s c a le
lo c
E =
S iio n ic c o r e
N e g a tiv e c h a r g e c lo u d o f v a le n c e
e le c tr o n s
(a)
(b )
(a )
x
C l
N a
p '
p '
(b )
Fig. 7.8: (a) A NaCl chain in the NaCl crystal without an applied
field. Average or net dipole moment per ion is zero. (b) In the
presence of an applied field the ions become slightly displaced
which leads to a net average dipole moment per ion.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
+Q
Cl
av
= aQ
F
o
(a )
= 0
(c )
(b )
av
(d)
E le c tr o d e
E le c tr o d e
D ie le c tr ic
F ix e d c h a r g e
A c c u m u l a te d c h a r g e
M o b ile c h a r g e
(b )
(a)
G r a i n b o u n d a r y o r i n te r f a c e
(c)
Fig. 7.10: (a) A crystal with equal number of mobile positive ions and fixed
negative ions. In the basence of a field there is no net separation between
all the positive charges and all the negative charges. (b) In the presence of
an applied field the mobile positive ions migrate towards the negative
electrode and accumulate there. There is now an overall separation between
the negative charges and positive charges in the dielectric. The dielectric
therefore exhibits interfacial polarization. (c) Grain boundaries and
interfaces between different materials frequently give rise to interfacial
polarization.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
E
t
0
E = E s in t
o
(0)
r
''
r
0 .0 1
v = V s i n
0 .1
10
100
(a )
(b )
v = V s i n
o
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
I n t e r f a c i a l a n d
s p a c e c h a r g e
O rie n ta tio n a l,
D ip o la r
Io n ic
E le c tro n ic
1 0 2
102
104
106
108
1 0 10
1 0 12
1 0 14
1 0 16
Fig. 7.14: The frequency dependence of the real and imaginary parts
of the dielectric constant in the presence of interfacial, orientational,
ionic and electronic polarization mechanisms.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
2 .7
0 .0 4 5
2 .6 5
2 .6
2 .5 5
0 .0 4
0 .0 3 5
2 .5
0 .0 2 5
0 .0 2
2 .3 5
10
2 .4
0 .0 3
2 .4 5
Fig. 7.15: Real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant , r '
and r '', vs frequency for (a) a polymer, PET, at 115C and (b), an
ionic crystal, KCl, at room temperature. Both exhibit relaxation
peaks but for different reasons. (Data for (a) from Dielectric
Analysis, DEA, by Kasap and Nomura (1995) and data for (b)
from C. Smart, G.R. Wilkinson, A.M. Karo, J.R. Hardy,
International Conference on Lattice Dynamics, Copenhagen,
1963, as quoted by D.H. Martin, The study of the vibration of
Crystal Lattices by far Infra-Red Spectroscopy, Advances in
Physics, 14, (No. 53-56), pp. 39-100, 1965)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
C h a r g e s in s id e
th e s u r f a c e
d A
S u rfa c e
Fig.7.16:GaussLaw:Thesurfaceintegraloftheelectricfield
normaltothesurfaceisthetotalchargeenclosed.Fieldispositive
ifitiscomingout,negativeifitisgoingintothesurface.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
G a u s s s u rfac e
A re a = A
E
(a)
(b )
Fig. 7.17: (a) The Gauss surface is a very thin rectangular surface just
surrounding the positive electrode and enclosing the positive charges,
Qo. The
field cuts only the face just inside the capacitor. (b) A solid dielectric occupies
part of the distance between the plates. The vacuum (air)-dielectric boundary is
parallel to the plates and normal to the fields
E1 andE2. (c) A thin rectangular
Gauss surface at the bundary encloses the negative polarization charges.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
B o u n d ar y
(a )
t 1
t 2
n 2
Fig.7.18:(a)Boundaryconditionsbetweendielectrics.(b)Thecase
forEt1 = Et2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
Fig. 7.19: Field in the cavity is higher than the field in the solid.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
Q
+ Q
G a u s s s u r f a c e
fre e
D ie l e c tr i c
Fig. 7.21: A convenient Gauss surface for calculating the field inside
the dielectric is a very thin rectangular surface enclosing the surface
of the dielectric. The total charges enclosed are the free charges on
the electrodes and the polarization charges on the surface of the
dielectric.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
V o id in d ie le c tr ic
H ig h v o lta g e c o n d u c to r
(a)
(b )
G as
G ro u n d
C r a c k ( o r d e f e c t) a td ie le c tr ic
e le c tr o d e in te r f a c e
(c )
Fig.7.22:CoronaandPartialDischarges:(a)Thefieldisgreateston
thesurfaceofthecylindricalconductorfacingtheground.Ifthe
voltageissufficientlylargethisfieldgivesrisetoacorona
discharge.(b)Thefieldinavoidwithinasolidcaneasilycause
partialdischarge.(c)Thefieldinthecrackatthesolidmetal
interfacecanalsoleadtoapartialdischarge.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
+ Q
d
V
Fig.7.23Anexaggeratedschematicillustrationofasoftdielectric
mediumexperiencingstrongcompressiveforcesduetotheapplied
voltage.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
O u te re le c tro d e
D ie le c tric in s u la to r
(e .g .,p o ly e th y le n e )
In n e re le c tro d e
T in y p o re o rc ra c k
E le c tric a ltre e in g
S e m ic o n d u c tin g
p o ly m e rs h e a th s
C a b le ja c k e t
(a )
(b )
Ebr
10
In tr i n s i c
E l e c tr o n i c
1 M V c m
E l e c tr o m e c h an ic al
In te r n a l d i s c h a r g e s
a n d e l e c tr i c a l tr e e s
T h e rm a l
100
W a te r tr e e s
10
1 kV cm
-1
1 ns
1 s
1 m s
1 s
1 m in
1 h r 1 d a y 1 m o 1 y r1 0 y r s
T i m e to b r e a k d o w n
G a u s s s u rfa c e
D i e l e c tr ic
E
a
+ Q
d r
fre e
1 p F
1 n F
H ig h P e r m ittiv ity C e r a m ic
L o w lo s s c e ra m ic a n d g la s s
M ic a F ilm
P o ly m e r F ilm
A lE le c tro ly tic
T a E le c tr o ly tic
1 H z
1 k H z
1 M H z
1 G H z
F re q u e n c y
M e ta lte r m in a tio n
Epoxy
C e r a m ic
L eads
M e ta le le c tr o d e
(a)Singlelayerceramiccapacitor
(e.g.diskcapacitors)
(b)Multilayerceramiccapacitor
(stackedceramiclayers)
Fig.7.29:Singleandmultilayerdielectriccapacitors
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
P o ly m e rf ilm
A lm e ta lliz a tio n
(a )
(b )
Fig.7.30Twopolymertapesin(a)eachwithametallizedfilmelectrode
onthesurface(offsetfromeachother)canberolledtogether(likea
Swissrollcake)toobtainapolymerfilmcapacitorasin(b).Asthetwo
separatemetalfilmsarelinedatopposeedges,electrodingisdoneover
thewholesidesurface.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
E le c tro ly te
A l
A l f o ils
C a th o d e
A n o d e
A l
A l
A lc a s e
(a )
(b )
Fig.7.31:Alelectrolyticcapacitor.
FromPrinciple sofEle ctronicMate rialsandDe vice s,S e condEdition,S.O.Ka sa p(McGra wHill,2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
E poxy
S ilv er p ain t
T a O
2
T a
G r a p h ite
M nO
S ilv e rp a s te
T a
L ad s
(a)
(b)
D ip o la r s id e g r o u p
P o ly m e r c h a in
P o ly m e r d ie le c tr ic
(a )
(c )
(b )
Fig. 7.33: (a) A polymer dielectric which has dipolar side groups attached
to the polymer chains. With no applied field the dipoles are randomly
oriented. (b) In the presence of an applied field some very limited rotation
enables dipolar polarization to take place. (c) Near the softening
temperature of the polymer, the molecular motions are rapid and there is
also sufficient volume between chains for the dipoles to align with the
field. The dipolar contribution to
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
2 .9
0 .1
P E T a tf= 1 k H z
2 .8
0 .0 1
'
r
ta n
2 .7
0 .0 0 1
2 .6
'
r
D E A
2 .5
0 .0 0 0 1
0
5 0
1 0 0
1 5 0
2 0 0
2 5 0
T e m p e r a tu r e ( C )
F o rc e
P = 0
(a )
(b )
(c )
(d )
Fig.7.35:Thepiezoelectriceffect.(a)Apiezoelectriccrystal
withnoappliedstressorfield.(b)Thecrystalisstrainedbyan
appliedforcewhichinducespolarizationinthecrystaland
generatessurfacecharges.(c)Anappliedfieldcausesthecrystal
tobecomestrained.Inthiscasethefieldcompressesthecrystal.
(d)Thestrainchangesdirectionwhenthefieldisreversed,and
nowthecrystalisextended.Thedashedrectangleistheoriginal
samplesizein(a).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
F o rc e
P = 0
(a )
P = 0
(b )
A '
x
P = 0
B'
B
(a )
(b )
A ''
P = 0
P
B ''
(c)
Fig.7.37:Ahexagonalunitcellhasnocenterofsymmetry.(a)Intheabsenceofan
appliedforcethecentersofmassforpositiveandnegativeionscoincide.(b)Under
anappliedforcealongythecentersofmassforpositiveandnegativeionsareshifted
whichresultsinanetdipolemomentPalongy.(c)Whentheforceisalonga
differentdirection,alongx,theremaynotbearesultingnetdipolemomentinthat
directionthoughtheremaybeanetPalongadifferentdirection(y).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
M ech an ical
v ib ratio n s
P iez o elec tric
tran sd u c er
E lastic w av es
in th e so lid
O sc illato r
O sc illo sc o p e
Fig.7.38:Piezoelectrictransducersarewidelyusedtogenerate
ultrasonicwavesinsolidsandalsotodetectsuchmechanical
waves.Thetransducerontheleftisexcitedfromanacsource
andvibratesmechanically.Thesevibrationsarecoupledtothe
solidandgenerateelasticwaves.Whenthewavesreachthe
otherendtheymechanicallyvibratethetransducerontheright
whichconvertsthevibrationstoanelectricalsignal.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
(a )
P ie z o e le c tric
P ie z o e le c tric
P ie z o e le c tric
F
F
(b )
Fig.7.39:Thepiezoelectricsparkgenerator
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
L
Q u a r tz
C
L
..
(a)
(b )
Z
(c )
f
s
(d )
0
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
B a
O
2+
Ti
4+
( a ) B a T i O 3 c u b i c c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e a b o v e 1 3 0
C
a
( b ) B a T i O 3 c u b i c s t r u c t u r e a b o v e 1 3 0 C
( c ) B a T i O 3 t e t r a g o n a l s t r u c t u r e b e l o w 1 3 0 C
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
H e a t
Fig. 7.43: The heat absorbed by the crystal increases the temperature
by T which induces a change
P in the polarization. This is the
pyroelectric effect. The change
P gives rise to a change
V in the
voltage which can be measured.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
Intensity
A bsorbing
surfaceofareaA
H ighinputresistance
am plifier
v(t)
R esponsetoconstantradiation
A
C hoppedradiation
B
R esponsetochoppedradiation
t
R eflecting
surface
+Q
fre e
+Q
fre e
fre e
+Q
fre e
V ac u u m
o
V
D i el ec tr i c
E l e c tr o m e te r
E l e c tr o m e te r
(a)
(b )
Fig. 7.45: (a) Parallel plate capacitor with free space between plates
which has been charged to a voltage Vo . There is no battery to
m aintain the voltage constant across the capacitor. The electrom eter
m easures the voltage difference across the plates and, in principle,
does no affect the m easurem ent. (b) After the insertion of the
dielectric, the voltage difference is V, less than Vo and the field in the
dielectric is E less than Eo .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
Q
+ Q
G a u s s s u rfa c e
fre e
d A
E
D i e l e c tr ic
Fig. 7.46: Consider a Gauss surface just around the right plate and
within the dielectric encompassing both +Qfree and QP. (E is the
electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
+ Q
+ Q
fre e
fre e
d e p
+ Q
+ Q
fre e
fre e
d e p
A p p lie d f ie ld
E
A p p lie d f ie ld
dep
P
E
= 0
dep
T h in r o d
d ie le c tr ic
P o la r iz e d
s p h e r ic a l
d ie le c tr ic
(a )
(b )
d E
d x
p
F