Telecom Fundamentals Ne

TELECOMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS
COURSEWARE
Ronald Gomes
Module1( Transmission Fundamentals)
MODULE 1
Data , Signal & Transmission

Fundamentals
Data Communication Terms

Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
Transmission - communication of data by
the propagation and processing of signals
Examples of Analog and Digital

Data
Analog
Video
Audio
Digital
Text
Integers
Analog Signals
A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
Examples of media:
Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
Fiber optic cable
Atmosphere or space propagation
Analog signals can propagate analog and digital

data
Digital Signals
A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium
Generally cheaper than analog signaling
Less susceptible to noise interference
Suffer more from attenuation
Digital signals can propagate analog and
digital data
Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Reasons for Choosing Data

and Signal Combinations
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-analog
equipment
Analog data, digital signal

Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Digital data, analog signal

Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
Examples include optical fiber and satellite
Analog data, analog signal

Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to
content
Attenuation limits length of transmission
link
Cascaded amplifiers boost signals energy
for longer distances but cause distortion
Analog data can tolerate distortion
Introduces errors in digital data
Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal
Attenuation endangers integrity of data
Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Analog signal carrying digital data

Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal
Generates new, clean analog signal
Electromagnetic Signal
Function of time
Can also be expressed as a function of
frequency
Signal consists of components of different
frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a

constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +

where T is the period of the signal
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal
pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or
strength of the signal over time; typically
measured in volts
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at
which the signal repeats
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one
repetition of the signal
T = 1/f
Phase () - measure of the relative position in time

within a single period of a signal
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single
cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters

General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the

three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s

(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T =
(d) Phase shift; = /4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2 radians = 360 = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples of one
frequency, its referred to as the fundamental
frequency
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow
band of frequencies that most of the signals energy is
contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to
consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases
The period of the total signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental frequency
Relationship between Data Rate

and Bandwidth
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
Conclusions
Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
About Channel Capacity

Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate
that can be achieved
For digital data, to what extent do
impairments limit data rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate at
which data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under
given conditions
Concepts Related to Channel

Capacity
Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated
(bps)
Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
as constrained by the transmitter and the nature of
the transmission medium (Hertz)
Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
Error rate - rate at which errors occur
Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
Nyquist Bandwidth
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
C = 2B
With multilevel signaling

C = 2B log2 M
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise thats present at a particular
point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
( SNR ) dB
signal power
10 log10
noise power
A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low

number of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
Shannon Capacity Formula

Equation:
C B log 2 1 SNR
Represents theoretical maximum that can be

achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
Impulse noise is not accounted for
Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted
for
Example of Nyquist and Shannon

Formulations
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB
B 4 MHz 3 MHz 1 MHz
SNR dB 24 dB 10 log10 SNR
SNR 251
Using Shannons formula

C 10 log 2 1 251 10 8 8Mbps
6
Example of Nyquist and Shannon

Formulations
How many signaling levels are required?
C 2 B log 2 M
8 10 2 10 log 2 M
6
4 log 2 M
M 16
Classifications of Transmission
Media
Transmission Medium
Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
Waves are guided along a solid medium
E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Unguided Media
Transmission and reception are achieved by
means of an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
Directional
Omnidirectional
General Frequency Ranges
Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz
Directional beams possible
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range

30 MHz to 1 GHz
Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range

Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined
areas
Terrestrial Microwave
Description of common microwave antenna
Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna
Located at substantial heights above ground level
Applications
Long haul telecommunications service
Short point-to-point links between buildings
Satellite Microwave
Description of communication satellite
Microwave relay station
Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
Applications
Television distribution
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
Description of broadcast radio antennas
Omnidirectional
Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
Applications
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
MODULE 2
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing
Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission
of a single signal
Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on
a single medium
More efficient use of transmission medium
Multiplexing
Reasons for Widespread Use of

Multiplexing
Cost per kbps of transmission facility
declines with an increase in the data rate
Cost of transmission and receiving
equipment declines with increased data rate
Most individual data communicating
devices require relatively modest data rate
support
Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the useful
bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of a given signal
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable
bit rate of the medium exceeds the required data
rate of a digital signal
Frequency-division Multiplexing
Time-division Multiplexing
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Sub Group ( 3 voice channels)- 12KHz to 24 KHz
Group ( 12 Voice Channels)- 60 KHz to 108KHz
Super Group ( 60 voice channels)- 312KHz to 552KHz
Master Super Group( 900 voice channels) 0 to 4MHz
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
American Standard based on T Series of Multiplexers

European Standard based on E Series of Multiplexers
SONET/SDH Multiplexing Hierarchies
T
T1
SERIES MULTIPLEXERS
1.544Mbps
24 voice channels
T2(4T1s) 6.312Mbps
96 voice channels
T3(6T2s) 44.736Mbps
576 voice channels
T4(7T3s) 274.176Mbps 4032 voice channels
E SERIES MULTIPLEXERS
E1
2.048Mbps
30 voice channels
E2(4E1s)
8.448Mbps
120 voice channels
E3(4E2s)
34.304Mbps
480 voice channels
E4(4E3s)
139.264Mbps
1920 voice channels
E5(4E4s)
565.148Mbps
7680 voice channels
SONET/SDH OBJECTIVES
.SONET had to make it possible for different carriers to
interwork.
.Some means was needed to unify the US, European
& Japanese Digital systems, all of which were based
on 64 kbps PCM channels, but all of which combined
them in different and incompatible ways.
.SONET had to provide a way to multiplex multiple
digital channels together.
.SONET had to provide support for operations,
administration & maintenance.
SONET/SDH BASIC RATE

The basic SONET frame is a block of 810 bytes put
out every 125 Micro Secs. Since SONET is
synchronous, frames are emitted whether or not
there are any useful data to send. Having 8000
frames/sec exactly matches the sampling rate of the
PCM channels used in all digital telephony systems.
The 810 bytes SONET frame is best described as a
rectangle of bytes, 90 columns wide by 9 rows high.
Thus 8 x 810 = 6480 bits are transmitted 8,000
times per second, for a gross data rate of 51.84
Mbps. This is the basic SONET channel and is
called STS 1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1).
All SONET trunks are a multiple of STS 1.

The first three columns of each frame are reserved
for system management information. The first three
rows contain the section overhead; the next six
contain the line overhead. The section overhead is
generated and checked at the start and end of each
section, whereas the line overhead is generated
and checked at the start and end of each line.
The remaining 87 columns hold 87 x 9 x 8 x 8000 =
50.112 Mbps of user data. However, the user data,
called the SPE (Synchronous Payload Envelope) do
not always begin in Row1, Column 4. The SPE can
begin anywhere within the frame.

A pointer to the first byte is contained in the first row of
the line overhead. The first column of the SPE is the
path overhead (i.e., header for the end-to-end path
sublayer protocol).
The ability to allow the SPE to begin anywhere within
the SONET frame, and even to span two frames, gives
added flexibility to the system. For example, if a
payload arrives at the source while a dummy SONET
frame is being constructed, it can be inserted into the
current frame, instead of being held until the start of the
next one. This is also useful when the payload does not
fit exactly in one frame, as in the case of a sequence of
53 byte ATM cells. The first row of the line overhead
can then point to the start of the first full cell, to provide
synchronization.

The section, line & path overheads contain a profusion
of bytes used for operations, administration and
maintenance. Since each byte occurs 8000 times per
second, it represents a PCM channel. Three of these
are, in fact, used to provide voice-channels for section,
line & path maintenance personnel. Other bytes are
used for synchronisation, parity, error monitoring, IDs,
clocking, and other functions.
SONET/SDH DATA RATES

SONET
RATE (MBPS)
Electrical Optical
User
SDH
Optical
DATA
Gross SPE
STS-1
OC-1
51.84 50.11249.536
STS-3
148.608
OC-3
STM-1
155.52150.336
STS-9
445.824
OC-9
STM-3
466.56451.008
STS-12
594.432
OC-12
STM-4
622.08601.344
STS-18
891.648
OC-18
STM-6
933.12902.016
MODULE 3
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES
Reasons for Choosing Encoding

Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment less complex and expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment
Analog data, digital signal

Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding

Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate
analog signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
Analog data, analog signal

Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted
easily and cheaply
Done with voice transmission over voice-grade
lines
Signal Encoding Criteria

What determines how successful a receiver will be
in interpreting an incoming signal?
Signal-to-noise ratio
Data rate
Bandwidth
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Factors Used to Compare

Encoding Schemes
Signal spectrum
With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
Clocking
Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
Factors Used to Compare

Encoding Schemes
Signal interference and noise immunity
Performance in the presence of noise
Cost and complexity

The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate,
the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques

Digital data to analog signal
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Phase of carrier signal shifted
Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier
A cos 2f c t
s t
0
where the carrier signal is Acos(2fct)
binary 1
binary 0
Amplitude-Shift Keying
Susceptible to sudden gain changes

Inefficient modulation technique
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
Used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying

(BFSK)
Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency
A cos 2f1t
s t
A cos 2f 2t
binary 1
binary 0
where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying

(BFSK)
Less susceptible to error than ASK
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs
that use coaxial cable
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying

(MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used
More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to error
si t A cos 2f i t
1 i M
f i = f c + (2i 1 M)f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element

(MFSK)
To match data rate of input bit stream,

each output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
So, one signal element encodes L bits

(MFSK)
Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
Minimum frequency separation required

2fd=1/Ts
Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth
of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts

(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

Two-level PSK (BPSK)
Uses two phases to represent binary digits
A cos 2f t
binary 1
c
s t
A cos 2f c t binary 0
A cos 2f c t
A cos 2f c t
binary 1
binary 0

Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shift with reference to previous bit
Binary 0 signal burst of same phase as previous
signal burst
Binary 1 signal burst of opposite phase to previous
signal burst

Four-level PSK (QPSK)
Each element represents
more
than one bit
A cos 2f c t
11
4
A cos 2f c t
01
4
00
A cos 2f c t
4
10
A cos 2f c t
4
s t

Multilevel PSK
Using multiple phase angles with each angle

having more than one amplitude, multiple signals
elements can be achieved
R
R
D
L log 2 M
D = modulation rate, baud

R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2L
L = number of bits per signal element
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
ASK, PSK
FSK
BT=(1+r)R
BT=2DF+(1+r)R
R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated
signal
(B
T)
1 r
1 r
R
BT
R
L
log 2 M
MPSK
MFSK
1 r M
BT
log 2 M
L = number of bits encoded per signal element

M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
Two different signals sent simultaneously on
the same carrier frequency
s t d1 t cos 2f c t d 2 t sin 2f c t
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
Reasons for Analog Modulation

Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion required
Modulation of analog signals

A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission
Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing

Analog data to analog signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
s t 1 na x t cos 2f c t
cos2fct = carrier
x(t) = input signal
na = modulation index
Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier

(DSBTC)
Spectrum of AM signal
Transmitted power
Pt Pc
na
1
2
Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)

Pc = transmitted power in carrier
Single Sideband (SSB)

Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
Sends only one sideband
Eliminates other sideband and carrier
Advantages
Only half the bandwidth is required
Less power is required
Disadvantages
Suppressed carrier cant be used for synchronization
purposes
Angle Modulation
Angle modulation
s t Ac cos 2f c t t
Phase modulation
Phase is proportional to modulating signal
t n p m t
np = phase modulation index
Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation
Derivative of the phase is proportional to
modulating signal
' t n f m t
nf = frequency modulation index
Angle Modulation
Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a
signal whose bandwidth:
is also centered at fc
but has a magnitude that is much different
Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which
produces a wide range of frequencies
Thus, FM and PM require greater

bandwidth than AM
Angle Modulation
Carsons rule
where
BT 2 1 B
n p Am
for PM
F n f Am
for FM
B
2B
The formula for FM becomes

B 2F 2 B
T

Analog data to digital signal
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
Analog Data to Digital Signal

Once analog data have been converted to
digital signals, the digital data:
can be transmitted using NRZ-L
can be encoded as a digital signal using a code
other than NRZ-L
can be converted to an analog signal, using
previously discussed techniques
Pulse Code Modulation

Based on the sampling theorem
Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
The digital signal consists of block of n bits,

where each n-bit number is the amplitude of
a PCM pulse

By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal
is only approximated
Leads to quantizing noise
Signal-to-noise ratio
for quantizing noise
n
SNR dB 20 log 2 1.76 dB 6.02n 1.76 dB
Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6

dB, or a factor of 4
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by staircase
function
Moves up or down by one quantization level ()
at each sampling interval
The bit stream approximates derivative of

analog signal (rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up
0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation
Two important parameters
Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
Sampling rate
Accuracy improved by increasing sampling

rate
However, this increases the data rate
Advantage of DM over PCM is the

simplicity of its implementation
MODULE 4
WIRED LOCAL EXCHANGE ARCHITECTURE AND

ISSUES
DEFINITION OF TELECOMMUNICATION
Telecommunication is a technology which deals with
the transfer of information between any two points
over any distance using electrical/electronic means
at reasonable cost. The technology must ensure that
the transfer of information is done faithfully, reliably
& must meet the quality requirements of minimum
service quality.
MAJOR TELECOM MILESTONES

1858 First transatlantic submarine cable installed for
intercontinental telegraphy between USA & Europe.
1870 11,000 kms. of terrestrial overhead &
submarine cable laid between London & Calcutta.
1876 Telephone invented by Alexander Graham Bell
starting the telephone industry.
1891 Strowger designed the first automatic
exchange.
1901 Marconi send the first wireless signal.
1914-1918 Development of HF Radio.
1934 Alec Reeves invented PCM a method to
convert analog signals to digital signals.
MAJOR TELECOM MILESTONES

1939-45 Technology developed for exploiting the VHF and
microwave band for communications.
1948 The transistor was invented by the Bell Laboratories,
unleashing the power of electronics.
1957 The rocket technology developed to enable satellites
to be launched.
1963 The first geo-stationery satellite was launched for
supporting global communications.
1971 The first domestic satellite called Anik was launched
by Canada.
1982 Cellular services introduced in Chicago.
1984 ISDN services Launched
1989 Laying of fiber optic submarine cables across

the globe commenced
1998 Iridium services offered by Motorola.
TELEPHONE -------- The User Interface
Functional Components of a Telephone

Microphone
Receiver
Ringer
Rotary Dial/Alpha Numeric Key Pad
TELEPHONY ISSUES
Distance Limitation from Central Office

Power Requirements
The Local Loop
Bandwidth Limitation of the Local Loop
THE CENTRAL OFFICE ARCHITECTURE

Subscribe
r Lines
Central Office
THE CENTRAL OFFICE TOPOLOGY

OUTDOOR PLANT
Drop
Wire
Telephone
DP
Central Office
UG Cables
MODULE 5
Network Topologies for POTS & ISDN

Access
Network Topology
Class 1
Regional
Class 2
Sectional
Class 3 Primary
Class 4
Tandem
or Toll
Class 5
End Office
Subscribers
The US has 200 million subscribers
19,000 End Offices

1,300 Tandem/Toll Offices
230 Primary Offices
67 Sectional Offices
10 Primary Offices(all fully
connected)
Telecom Operators in the PSTN

Business Space
Local
Exchange Carrier(LEC)
Inter Exchange Carrier(IXC)

National Long Distance(NLD)
International Long Distance(ILD)
Traffic Measurement on Trunks

1000
lines
100 Lines
End office
TANDEM OR
TOLL
OFFICE
ERLANG
The basic measure of Traffic is the Traffic Intensity, expressed in a dimensionless
unit, the erlang :
A = h
= the mean rate of connection requests attempted per unit time
h = the holding time per successful call
16 KHz Metering
This is used in PCOs & EPABXs for indicating
call charges on local/STD/ISD calls. The basic
unit of charge is a 16 kHz pulse send by the
switch on the subscriber line. The charges per
pulse is Rs.1.20 + 5% service charge. Depending
on distance of call, the pulse rate varies with time.
The received pules are counted & converted into
cost of call in real time by PCOs call metering
hardware. In case of virtual card service, the
switch itself counts the pulses, converts into cost
of call & debits it to the subscribers account in
real time.
Echo in Telephone Systems

Causes of Echo in Telephone Systems
Echo Suppression Technique.How it works?
Echo Cancellation Technique. How it works?
NARROW Band ISDN

Introduction
For more than a century, the primary
international telecommunication infrastructure
has been the public circuit-switched telephone
system. This system was designed for analog
voice transmission and is inadequate for
modern communication needs. Anticipating
considerable user demand for an end-to-end
digital service, the worlds telephone
companies and PTTs got together in 1984
under the auspices of CCITT and agreed to
build a new, fully digital, circuit switched
telephone system by the early part of the 21st
century. This new system, called ISDN
(Integrated Services Digital Network) has as
ISDN Services
Voice Services with advanced voice calling features
Data Services
Telemetry Services
ISDN System Architecture
The key idea behind ISDN is that of the digital

bit pipe, a conceptual pipe between the
customer and the carrier through which bits
flow. Whether the bits originated from a digital
telephone, a digital terminal, a digital fax
machine or some other device is irrelevant. All
that
matters
ispipe
that can,
bits can
through
the
The digital
bit
and flow
normally
does,
pipe
in both
directions.
support
multiple
independent channels by
time division multiplexing of the bit stream.
The exact format of the bit stream and its
multiplexing is a carefully defined part of
the interface specification for the digital bit
pipe. Two principle standards for the bit
pipe have been developed; a low bandwidth
standard for home use and a higher
bandwidth standard for business use that

Customer Premises
Carriers office
O
PC
Digital
bit pipe
NT1
ISDN
Telephone
ISDN
Alarm
ISDN
EXCHANGE

In the normal configuration for a house, the carrier places a
network terminating device, NT1, on the customers
premises and connects it to the ISDN exchange in the
carriers office, several kms. away, using the twisted pair
that was previously used to connect to the telephone. The
NT-1 box has a connector on it into which a passive bus
cable can be inserted. Upto eight ISDN Devices like
telephones, terminals, alarms and other devices can be
connected to the cable, similar to the way devices are
connected to a LAN. From the customers point of view,
the network boundary is the connector on NT-1.

S
ISDN
TER
CARRIERS
OFFICE
S
NON
ISDN
TER
TER
TA
NT2
ISDN
PBX
S
LAN
GATEWAY
ROUTER
BUSINESS
PREMISES
NT1
ISDN
EXCH

For large businesses an NT-2, called a PBX, is connected
to NT-1. CCITT defined four reference points called
R,S,T & U between the various devices. The U reference
point is the connection between ISDN exchange in the
carriers office and NT-1. The T reference point is what
the connector on NT-1 provides to the customer. The S
reference point is the interface between the ISDN PBX
and the ISDN terminals. The R reference point is the
connection between the terminal Adapter & non-ISDN
terminals. Note that many different kinds of interfaces
will be used at R.
ISDN Access Specifications

ISDN defines three types of access namely Basic Rate
Access (BRA) for residential connections, Primary Rate
Access (PRA) for business connections & H channel
access for high speed data required for high end
applications.
.BRA : It is a 144 kbps access consisting of 2 x B channels of
64 kbps & 1 x D channel of 16 kbps for common channel
signaling and low speed data applications.
.PRA : It is a 1.544 Mbps or 2.048 Mbps consisting of
23B+D channels or 30B+D channels. Each B channel is 64
kbps. The D channel is also 64 kbps.
.H Channel Access : Consisting of H0 access at 384 kbps,
H11 access at 1.536 Mbps & H12 access at 1.920 Mbps.
ISDN Channel Uses

.B Channel : Used for voice, data, text, graphics
& enhanced videotext.
.D Channel : used for common channel signaling,
telemetry, monitoring alarm signals & low speed
data.
.H Channel : used for video conferencing,
database file transfer, LAN interconnection and
fast facsimile.
B ISDN : An Overview
If N-ISDN was a timid step on the digital platform, BISDN is a bold leap into the unknown, because B-ISDN
intends to offer a 155 Mbps access to subscribers on the
fibre. The services that B-ISDN is likely to support are :
.HDTV Transmission
.Interactive Video
.High Resolution Colour Fax
.Full motion switched video conferencing
.Transmission of voice, data, graphics and video as
compound documents.
.Access to interactive high fidelity music libraries.
MODULE 6
Communication Networks and

Switching Concept
Types of Communication
Networks
Traditional
Traditional local area network (LAN)
Traditional wide area network (WAN)
Higher-speed
High-speed local area network (LAN)
Metropolitan area network (MAN)
High-speed wide area network (WAN)
Speed and Distance of

Communications Networks
Characteristics of WANs
Covers large geographical areas

Circuits provided by a common carrier
Consists of interconnected switching nodes
Traditional WANs provide modest capacity
64000 bps common
Business subscribers using T-1 service 1.544 Mbps common
Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and transmission

technique known as asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
10s and 100s of Mbps common
Characteristics of LANs
Like WAN, LAN interconnects a variety of
devices and provides a means for
information exchange among them
Traditional LANs
Provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps
High-speed LANS
Provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
Differences between LANs and

WANs
Scope of a LAN is smaller
LAN interconnects devices within a single
building or cluster of buildings
LAN usually owned by organization that

owns the attached devices
For WANs, most of network assets are not
owned by same organization
Internal data rate of LAN is much greater
The Need for MANs

Traditional point-to-point and switched network
techniques used in WANs are inadequate for
growing needs of organizations
Need for high capacity and low costs over large
area
MAN provides:
Service to customers in metropolitan areas
Required capacity
Lower cost and greater efficiency than equivalent
service from telephone company
Switching Terms
Switching Nodes:
Intermediate switching device that moves data
Not concerned with content of data
Stations:
End devices that wish to communicate
Each station is connected to a switching node
Communications Network:
A collection of switching nodes
Switched Network
Observations of Figure 3.3

Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5
and 7)
Some nodes connect to one or more stations
Node-station links usually dedicated point-topoint links
Node-node links usually multiplexed links
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Not a direct link between every node pair
Techniques Used in Switched

Networks
Circuit switching
Dedicated communications path between two
stations
E.g., public telephone network
Packet switching
Message is broken into a series of packets
Each node determines next leg of transmission
for each packet
Phases of Circuit Switching

Circuit establishment
An end to end circuit is established through switching
nodes
Information Transfer
Information transmitted through the network
Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data
Circuit disconnect
Circuit is terminated
Each node deallocates dedicated resources
Characteristics of Circuit
Switching
Can be inefficient
Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
Utilization not 100%
Delay prior to signal transfer for establishment
Once established, network is transparent to users

Information transmitted at fixed data rate with
only propagation delay
Components of Public
Telecommunications Network
Subscribers - devices that attach to the network;
mostly telephones
Subscriber line - link between subscriber and
network
Also called subscriber loop or local loop
Exchanges - switching centers in the network

A switching centers that support subscribers is an end
office
Trunks - branches between exchanges
How Packet Switching Works

Data is transmitted in blocks, called packets
Before sending, the message is broken into
a series of packets
Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes)
Packets consists of a portion of data plus a
packet header that includes control information
At each node en route, packet is received,

stored briefly and passed to the next node
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
Packet Switching Advantages

Line efficiency is greater
Many packets over time can dynamically share the same node
to node link
Packet-switching networks can carry out data-rate

conversion
Two stations with different data rates can exchange
information
Unlike circuit-switching networks that block calls when

traffic is heavy, packet-switching still accepts packets,
but with increased delivery delay
Priorities can be used
Disadvantages of Packet
Switching
Each packet switching node introduces a delay
Overall packet delay can vary substantially
This is referred to as jitter
Caused by differing packet sizes, routes taken and
varying delay in the switches
Each packet requires overhead information

Includes destination and sequencing information
Reduces communication capacity
More processing required at each node
Packet Switching Networks Datagram

Each packet treated independently, without
reference to previous packets
Each node chooses next node on packets path
Packets dont necessarily follow same route and
may arrive out of sequence
Exit node restores packets to original order
Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect
loss of packet and how to recover
Packet Switching Networks

Datagram
Advantages:
Call setup phase is avoided
Because its more primitive, its more flexible
Datagram delivery is more reliable

Virtual Circuit
Preplanned route established before packets sent
All packets between source and destination follow
this route
Routing decision not required by nodes for each
packet
Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network
but is not a dedicated path
Packets still buffered at each node and queued for
output over a line

Virtual Circuit
Advantages:
Packets arrive in original order
Packets arrive correctly
Packets transmitted more rapidly without
routing decisions made at each node
Effect of Packet Size on

Transmission

Transmission
Breaking up packets decreases transmission time
because transmission is allowed to overlap
Figure 3.9a
Entire message (40 octets) + header information (3
octets) sent at once
Transmission time: 129 octet-times
Figure 3.9b
Message broken into 2 packets (20 octets) + header (3
octets)

Transmission
Figure 3.9c
Message broken into 5 packets (8 octets) + header (3
octets)
Figure 3.9d
Making the packets too small, transmission time starts
increases
Each packet requires a fixed header; the more packets,
the more headers
Asynchronous Transfer Mode

(ATM)
Also known as cell relay
Operates at high data rates
Resembles packet switching
Involves transfer of data in discrete chunks, like packet
switching
Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed
over a single physical interface
Minimal error and flow control capabilities reduces

overhead processing and size
Fixed-size cells simplify processing at ATM nodes
ATM Terminology
Virtual channel connection (VCC)
Logical connection in ATM
Basic unit of switching in ATM network
Analogous to a virtual circuit in packet switching
networks
Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size
cells
Virtual path connection (VPC)

Bundle of VCCs that have the same end points
Advantages of Virtual Paths

Simplified network architecture
Increased network performance and
reliability
Reduced processing and short connection
setup time
Enhanced network services
Call Establishment
Virtual Channel Connection Uses

Between end users
Can carry end-to-end user data or control
signaling between two users
Between an end user and a network entity

Used for user-to-network control signaling
Between two network entities

Used for network traffic management and
routing functions
Virtual Path/Virtual Channel

Characteristics
Quality of service
Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell
delay variation
Switched and semipermanent virtual channel

connections
Cell sequence integrity
Traffic parameter negotiation and usage
monitoring
Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC
ATM Cell Header Format

Generic flow control (GFC) 4 bits, used only in
user-network interface
Used to alleviate short-term overload conditions in
network
Virtual path identifier (VPI) 8 bits at the usernetwork interface, 12 bits at network-network
interface
Routing field
Virtual channel identifier (VCI) 8 bits

Used for routing to and from end user
ATM Cell Header Format

Payload type (PT) 3 bits
Indicates type of information in information
field
Cell loss priority (CLP) 1 bit

Provides guidance to network in the event of
congestion
Header error control (HEC) 8 bit

Error code
ATM Service Categories

Real-time service
Constant bit rate (CBR)
Real-time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)
Non-real-time service
Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR)
Available bit rate (ABR)
Unspecified bit rate (UBR)
Examples of CBR Applications

Videoconferencing
Interactive audio (e.g., telephony)
Audio/video distribution (e.g., television,
distance learning, pay-per-view)
Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-ondemand, audio library)
Examples of UBR applications

Text/data/image transfer, messaging,
distribution, retrieval
Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)
MODULE 7
Wireless Communication
Fundamentals
Antennas and Propagation
Chapter 5
Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or
system of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy
into space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from space
In two-way communication, the same

antenna can be used for transmission and
reception
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an
antenna
Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beam width (or half-power beam width)

Measure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern
Types of Antennas
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi
antenna)
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction by a
perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
antenna)
Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of antenna
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective
2
area
4A 4f A
c2
G = antenna gain
Ae = effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light ( 3 108 m/s)
= carrier wavelength
Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth

Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave Propagation

Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within
line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line of
site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the atmosphere

Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density
of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight
d 3.57 h
Effective, or radio, line of sight
d 3.57 h
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = 4/3
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas
for LOS propagation:
3.57 h1 h2
h1 = height of antenna one

h2 = height of antenna two
LOS Wireless Transmission

Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion

Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion
Free Space Loss

Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna
Pt
4d
Pr
2
4fd 2
c2
Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
= carrier wavelength
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light ( 3 10 8 m/s)
where d and are in the same units (e.g., meters)
Free Space Loss

Free space loss equation can be recast:
Pt
4d
LdB 10 log 20 log
Pr

20 log 20 log d 21.98 dB

4fd
20 log
20 log f 20 log d 147.56 dB
c
Free Space Loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas
Pt 4 d
d
cd
2
2
Pr
Gr Gt
Ar At
f Ar At
2
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna

Gr = gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
Free Space Loss

Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas can be recast as
LdB 20 log 20 log d 10 log At Ar
20 log f 20 log d 10 log At Ar 169.54dB
Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite
communication
Thermal Noise
Amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or
conductor is:
N 0 kT W/Hz
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of

bandwidth
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 10 -23 J/K
T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)
Thermal Noise
Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency
Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz
(in watts):
N kTB
or, in decibel-watts
N 10 log k 10 log T 10 log B
228.6 dBW 10 log T 10 log B
Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with

different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal

paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
Expression Eb/N0
Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power
density per Hertz
Eb S / R
S
N0
N0
kTR
The bit error rate for digital data is a function of

Eb/N0
Given a value for Eb/N0 to achieve a desired error rate,
parameters of this formula can be selected
As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must
increase to maintain required Eb/N0
Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are
received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
Multipath Propagation
Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of radio
wave
Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength of
the signal or less
The Effects of Multipath

Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at
different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)

One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Error Compensation Mechanisms

Forward error correction
Adaptive equalization
Diversity techniques
Forward Error Correction

Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data
block
Code is a function of the data bits
Receiver calculates error-correcting code from

incoming data bits
If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
If error-correcting codes dont match, receiver attempts
to determine bits in error and correct
Adaptive Equalization
Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog or
digital information
Analog voice or video
Digital data, digitized voice or video
Used to combat intersymbol interference

Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back into
its original time interval
Techniques
Lumped analog circuits
Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Diversity Techniques
Diversity is based on the fact that individual
channels experience independent fading events
Space diversity techniques involving physical
transmission path
Frequency diversity techniques where the signal
is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or
carried on multiple frequency carriers
Time diversity techniques aimed at spreading the
data out over time
MODULE 8
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
FUNDAMENTALS
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS
MODULE 8A
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Introduction
The need for Satellite Communications.
The contributions of Sir Issac Newton, Lord Kepler and Sir
Arthur C Clarke
The Development of Rocket Technology
The Road towards the first Geo-stationary Satellite
Types of Communication Satellites

.Intercontinental Satellites : These are used
for intercontinental communication and work
on a global beam of 17.3 degrees. Three such
satellites can cover the entire earth. e.g. :
Intelsat, Symphonie & Molniya.
.Domestic Satellite : These are used for either
long distance communication within the
country or to provide communication in rural
areas. They work on a narrower beam adequate
to cover the country. Example Anik of Canada,
INSAT series of India, Palappa of Indonesia,
etc.
.Business Satellites : These are multiple
access satellites for business purposes working
generally in the X-band and are characterized
Contd...
.Mobile Terminal Satellites : In these the earth stations are generally
mobile. Example The INMARSAT for maritime communication, The
Defence Satellite Communication System (DSCS) of the Pentagon.
.Direct Broadcast Satellite : These are high power satellites, which
can broadcast programmes directly on home TV receivers without the
need for large Antennae. Example : American Broadcast Satellite
(ABS).
.Special Purpose Satellites : Launched for special communication
applications. Example : Flight call satellites for making international
calls from aircrafts; OSCAR launched by USA for amateur radio
purposes, Iridium for global cellular services.
.Research Satellites : Launched for research purposes like for
exploring new satellite design concepts or for exploring higher
frequencies of operation. Example American Technology Satellite
(ATS-6) launched by NASA.
Important Considerations in Satellite System Design

Satellite
must be small, light weight and consume minimum

amount of energy
Must be designed for very high reliability
Must be rugged enough to operate in a harsh hard vacuum
environment facing solar radiations,solar drag and
bombardment by micrometeorites
Very high Receiver Sensitivity because of distance
considerations
Earth stations must be cheaper. Hence special emphasis on
improving Transmitter Efficiency, Modulation Schemes,
Coding Schemes and Antenna Designs
Sophisticated Access Schemes for Optimum Bandwidth
Utilization
Government Licensing and other Regulatory Restrictions
Satellite System Architecture
uplink
downlink
Satellite Bands
BAND
FREQUENCY
DOWNLINL(GHz)
UPLINK(GHZ)
4/6
3.7 - 4.2
5.925 - 6.425
Ku
12/14
11.7 - 12.2
14.0 - 14.5
Ka
20/30
17.7 - 20.7
27.5 - 30.5
The Geo-Stationary Satellite

A satellite in a circular orbit in the earths
equatorial plane revolving around the earth in
one sidereal day (23 h, 56 min, 5 secs) is geostationary i.e, the satellite appears to be
stationary with respect to its earth stations.
The advantage is that the satellite is available
throughout the day and the earth station
antenna design is simplified.
Life of a Satellite
Since the earth is not a perfect sphere, a satellite tends
to change its orbital position in both the East-West and
North-South direction. ITU has specified tolerance of
0.5 degree shifts in East-West & North-South
directions. To keep the satellite in its correct orbit, the
satellite has to be tracked continuously & corrections to
the orbit given through telemetry signals for firing
thrusters which need onboard fuel. Once the fuel is
exhausted, the satellite cannot be tracked and is
considered dead once it crosses the tolerance limits of
drift. If drift cannot be controlled, the satellite keeps
drifting to the satellite graveyard, which is 75E, &
105W. In India the tracking is done from the Master
Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan.
Contd...
A satellite carries batteries to be used during
periods of eclipses. Once these batteries are
exhausted, the satellite dies. Since power utilized
depends on usage & loading, it is not possible to
specify the exact life of a satellite. However,
practically it is seen that Communication
satellites has a life of 7-10 years.
Eclipse of Satellite
Whenever the earth comes between the
satellite & the sun, it cuts off the suns
energy to the satellite solar panels. The
duration of the eclipse is longest (70
mins) during spring and autumnal
equinox & reduces on either side for 22
days giving a total 90 days of eclipses.
Frequency and Power

Management
The main resources of a satellite is its Bandwidth of
Operation, the power it can generate from the sun
using solar cells and onboard batteries. The control
of these resources for maximizing profits is very
important. In India, this job is done by the Network
Operations Control Centre (NOCC) located at
Secunderabad.
Multiple Access
The satellite bands show that in the C & Ku band,
500 MHz of Bandwidth is available for use. This
Bandwidth has to be shared by many earth stations in
an optimal fashion. This Bandwidth is divided into a
number of transponders each of 36 MHz. A single
36MHz-bandwidth transponder can provide
approximately 560 x 64 kbps PCM high quality voice
grade channels between various ground stations. If
CVSD source modulation scheme is used the number
of voice grade channels can be increased by a factor
of 4. If extended TDMA with DSI is used
approximately 9000 voice grade channels are
possible. Also, a single transponder can provide 6 TV
broadcast channels. A number of sophisticated
multiple access schemes have been developed for
optimising Bandwidth utilisation. At present, the
Propagation Delay in Satellite

Communications
Although signals to and from a satellite travel at the

speed of light (3,00,000 km/sec), the large round
trip distance between the users and the ground
stations, the elevation of the satellite above the
horizon, the end-to-end transit time is between 250
msecs & 300 msecs. A typical value is 270 msecs.
For comparison purposes, microwave links have a
propogation delay of 3Microssec/km. &
fibre/coaxial links have a delay of approximately
5Microsecs/km.
Characteristics of Satellite Communications

.Propagation Delay : Implication for voice
communication is that a subscriber feels he is
speaking on a simplex channel. The implication
for data communication is that conventional
protocols, which acknowledge receipt packetwise cannot be used as it, would be highly
inefficient. However, special sliding window
protocols have been designed for data
communication.
.Broadcast : Satellite architecture being a
broadcast architecture, it is excellent for
broadcast applications.
.Distance Independance : Satellite
communication has shattered the tyranny of
Geography because the cost of transmitting a
message is independent of distance.
Module 8B
Line-of-Sight Microwave
Communications
Introduction
The technology for microwave systems
long distance terrestrial communications
was developed after the Second World War.
Since microwave systems use the
microwave band of frequencies, the means
of propagation available is by space waves,
which need to meet the Line of Sight
requirement of Antennae.
However, because of the earths
curvature, Line of Sight requirement
implies that repeatering is necessary over
distances of 40-70 kms.
Generally, a microwave system may span
a distance of more than 2,000 kms and
have 30-40 repeater stations enroute.
LOS -wave Architecture
f1
Wave Guide
SWITCH
MUX
M Wave
Radio
f3
f2
f4
f1
f3
Wave Guide
M Wave
Radio
MUX
SWITC
H
Design Aspects
The FDM or TDM multiplex is modulated
by a microwave band carrier frequency.
The choice of modulation scheme in
digital microwave systems is QPSK, which
gives a spectral efficiency of about 1.2 Hz
per bit. Hence, a E3 system running at
34.304 Mbps will require a bandwidth of
approximately 41.16 MHz for transmission.
This 41.16 MHz baseband carried by a
carrier frequency is called an RF channel.
A Microwave system is designed to carry
large number of RF Channels to optimize on
Contd.
.If a system carries say 6 Trans RF
channels and 6 Receive RF channels;
atmost 4 Trans and 4 Receive channels will
be used for operational traffic.
The remaining 2 Trans and Receive
channels will function as protection or
standby channels to cater for equipment
failures.
Such a Microwave System is referred to
as a 4+2 System
This type of design other than optimising
costs also ensures high reliability (99.99%).
4 Trans Operational Channels
4000
MHz
3979.2
4100
MHz
4020.8
4079.2
4200
MHz
4120.8
4179.2
4300
MHz
4220.8
4279.2
4320.8
2 Trans Standby Channels

4400 Mhz
4379.2
4420.8
4500 Mhz
4479.2
4520.8
4 Receive Operational Channels
5000 Mhz
4979.2
5020.8
5100 Mhz
5079.2
5120.8
5200 Mhz
5179.2
5220.8
5300 Mhz
5279.2
5320.8
2 Receive Standby Channels
5400 Mhz
5379.2
5420.8
5500 Mhz
5479.2 5520.8
Fading in Microwave Systems

CCIR has carried out extensive field trials on fading
in the microwave band in various regions of the world.
Fading is an undesirable feature and has tremendous
effect on system design.
From the system design point of view the depth of
fading in the C band in a particular area during the
worst period of the year is what is of interest.
Studies show that a system designer must cater for
fade depths upto 40 dbs in India. Also, it may be noted
that since different hops have different frequencies, the
fading effect may not be felt over the entire microwave
chain.
Contd.
When a system designer plans design parameters like
Antenna Gains, Transmitter Power & Receiver
Sensitivity for a certain reliability (99.99%), he factors
in the worst fade depth possible and a minimum of 14
hops fading simultaneously.
Hence, it should be noted that fading does not disrupt
microwave communication because fading effects are
already factored in the design.
Also, note that the protection RF channels are
provided not as a counter to fading but to cater for
equipment failures.
Characteristics of Microwave
System
.Designed for a length of 2,500 kms. irrespective
of its physical length.
.Based on 100m tower Antennae. Each antenna
carries a number of RF channels on a shoot and a
tower may have a number of antennae firing in
different directions.
.Antenna gains are of the order of 40-45 dbs.
.Power actually transmitted may be as low as 0.5
watts.
.CCIR has imposed a power restriction of 20
watts & an EIRP restriction of 55dbW.
MODULE 8C
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
Many people in the computer industry
take enormous pride in how fast
computer technology has improved. In
the 1980s, a fast computer could execute
an instruction in 100 nsecs. Twenty years
later, a fast Cray computer can execute
an instruction in 1nsec, a factor of 10
improvement per decade.
In the same period, data
communications went from
56 kbps
(ARPANET) to 1 Gbps (modern optical
communication), a gain of more than a factor of
100 per decade, while at the same time the
error rate went from 10-5 per bit to almost zero.
This revolution in the communication industry
Architecture of OFC System

OFC
SWITCH
MUX
Optical
Transmitter
Optical
Receiver
Fibre
Repeaters
MUX
SWITCH
Components of an OFC System
Light Source
Optical Fibre Cable
Detector
Light Source
Two kinds of light sources can be used to do the
signaling.
LEDs (LIGHT Emitting Diodes)
Semiconductor Lasers.
LEDs offer lower data rates but are low

cost.Hence are used for short run systems.
Lasers are more expensive but permit higher data
rates.Hence are used for long haul systems.
The Optical Fibre Cable
Sheath
Jacket
Core
Cladding
Types of Fibres
At the centre is the glass core through which light
propagates. In multimode fibres, the core is 50 microns in
diameter, about the thickness of human hair. In singlemode fibre, the core is 8 to 10 microns. The core is
surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower Index of
refraction than the core, to keep all the
light in the core. Next comes a thin
plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
Fibres are typically grouped together in
bundles, protected by an outer sheath.
Light Propagation through Fibre

Air/Silica
boundary
Air
Light
Source
Silica
Detection
The receiving end of an optical fibre consists of a
photodiode, which gives off an electrical pulse when
struck by light.
The typical response time of a photodiode is 10 pico
secs., which limits data rates to about 10 Gbps.
Thermal noise is also an issue, so a pulse of light
must carry enough energy to be detected. By making
the pulses powerful enough, the error rate can be made
arbitrarily small.
Dispersion in Fibres
Light pulses sent down a fiber spread out in length as
they propagate. This spreading is called dispersion.
The amount of dispersion is wavelength dependent.
One way to keep these spreadout pulses from
overlapping is to increase the distance between them,
but this can be done by reducing the signaling rate.
Fortunately, it has been discovered that by making
the pulses in a special shape, all dispersion effects
cancel out. These pulses are called solitons.
Fibre Connection/Splicing
Fibre connections/splicing can be done in 3
ways :
.They can terminate in connectors and be plugged into
fibre sockets. Connectors lose about 10 to 20% of the
light, but they make it easy to configure systems.
.They can be spliced mechanically. Mechanical splices
just lay the two ends carefully next to each other in a
special sleeve and clamp them in place. 10% light loss.
.Two pieces of fibre can be fused to form a solid
connection. A fusion splice is almost as good as a
single drawn fibre but losses can still occur at the point
of splice.
MODULE 9
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
FUNDAMENTALS
Agents Involved in
Communication
Applications
Exchange data between computers (e.g.,
electronic mail)
Computers
Connected to networks
Networks
Transfers data from one computer to another
TCP/IP Layers
Physical layer
Network access layer
Internet layer
Host-to-host, or transport layer
Application layer
TCP/IP Physical Layer

Covers the physical interface between a
data transmission device and a
transmission medium or network
Physical layer specifies:
Characteristics of the transmission medium

The nature of the signals
The data rate
Other related matters
TCP/IP Network Access Layer

Concerned with the exchange of data
between an end system and the network to
which it's attached
Software used depends on type of network
Circuit switching
Packet switching (e.g., X.25)
LANs (e.g., Ethernet)
Others
T:TCP/IP Internet Layer

Uses internet protocol (IP)
Provides routing functions to allow data to
traverse multiple interconnected networks
Implemented in end systems and routers
TCP/IP Host-to-Host, or
Transport Layer
Commonly uses transmission control
protocol (tcp)
Provides reliability during data exchange
Completeness
Order
TCP/IP Application Layer

Logic supports user applications
Uses separate modules that are peculiar to
each different type of application
Protocol Data Units (PDUs)
Common TCP/IP Applications

Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
Provides a basic electronic mail facility
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Allows files to be sent from one system to
another
TELNET
Provides a remote logon capability
Layers of the OSI Model
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data link
Physical
OSI Application Layer

Provides access to the OSI environment for
users
Provides distributed information services
OSI Presentation Layer

Provides independence to the application
processes from differences in data
representation (syntax)
OSI Session Layer

Provides the control structure for
communication between applications
Establishes, manages, and terminates
connections (sessions) between cooperating
applications
OSI Transport Layer

Provides reliable, transparent transfer of
data between end points
Provides end-to-end error recovery and
flow control
OSI Network Layer

Provides upper layers with independence
from the data transmission and switching
technologies used to connect systems
Responsible for establishing, maintaining,
and terminating connections
OSI Data link Layer

Provides for the reliable transfer of
information across the physical link
Sends blocks (frames) with the necessary
synchronization, error control, and flow
control
OSI Physical Layer

Concerned with transmission of
unstructured bit stream over physical
medium
Deals with accessing the physical medium
Mechanical characteristics
Electrical characteristics
Functional characteristics
Procedural characteristics
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
TCP/IP Architecture Dominance

TCP/IP protocols matured quicker than
similar OSI protocols
When the need for interoperability across
networks was recognized, only TCP/IP was
available and ready to go
OSI model is unnecessarily complex

Accomplishes in seven layers what TCP/IP
does with fewer layers
Elements of Standardization
within OSI Framework
Protocol Specification
Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged
Semantics of all fields
Allowable sequence of PDUs
Service Definition
Functional description that defines what services are
provided, but not how the services are to be provided
Addressing
Entities are referenced by means of a service access
point (SAP)
Internetworking Terms
Communication network facility that provides a
data transfer service among devices attached to the
network
Internet collection of communication networks,
interconnected by bridges/routers
Intranet internet used by an organization for
internal purposes
Provides key Internet applications
Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet
Internetworking Terms
End System (ES) device used to support
end-user applications or services
Intermediate System (IS) device used to
connect two networks
Bridge an IS used to connect two LANs
that use similar LAN protocols
Router - an IS used to connect two
networks that may or may not be similar
Functions of a Router
Provide a link between networks
Provide for the routing and delivery of data
between processes on end systems attached
to different networks
Provide these functions in such a way as not
to require modifications of the networking
architecture of any of the attached
subnetworks
Network Differences Routers

Must Accommodate
Addressing schemes
Different schemes for assigning addresses
Maximum packet sizes

Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation
Interfaces
Differing hardware and software interfaces
Reliability
Network may provide unreliable service
Case Studies on Data Networks
X.25
X.25
X.25 data network standards were developed
during the 1970s by CCITT to provide an
interface between public packet-switched
networks and their customers.
The physical layer protocol called X.21 specifies
the physical, electrical and procedural interface
between the host and the network.
The data link layer standard deals with
transmission errors on the telephone line
between the users equipment and the public
network (router).
The network layer protocol deals with
addressing, flow control, delivery confirmation
and other network management issues. A X.25
network allows the user to establish virtual
circuits and then send packets of upto 128
bytes on them. These packets are delivered
reliably and in order. Most X.25 networks work
at speeds upto 64 kbps, which make them
Contd..
X.25 is connection-oriented and supports both
virtual circuits and permanent ones. A
switched virtual circuit is created when one
computer sends a packet to the network
asking to make a call to a remote computer.
Once established, packets can be sent over the
connection, always arriving in order. X.25
provides flow control, to make sure a fast
sender cannot swamp a slow or busy receiver.
A permanent virtual circuit is used the same
way as a switched one, but it is set up in
advance by agreement between the customer
Contd..
However, the world is full of data terminals that do not
speak X.25. To enable such terminals to use the X.25
network a new standard called triple X was introduced to
make ordinary non X.25 terminals to communicate with
an X.25 public network. In this, the user or network
operator installs a black box to which the terminals
connect. The black box is called a PAD (Packet
Assembler Disassembler) and its functions are defined in
a document called X.3. A standard protocol is defined
between the terminate and the PAD, called X.28; another
standard protocol exists between the PAD and the
network, called X.29. Hence, the triple X.
Frame Relay
It is a service for people who want an absolute bare-bones
connection oriented way to move bits from A to B at
reasonable speed and low cost. Its existence is due to
changes in technology over the past two decades. Twenty
years ago, communication using telephone lines was slow,
analog and unreliable and computers were slow and
expensive. As a result, complex protocols were required to
mask errors, and the users computers were too expensive
to have them do this work.
The situation has changed radically. Leased telephone lines
are now fast, digital and reliable and computers are fast and
inexpensive. This suggests the use of simple protocols,
with most of the work being done by the users computer,
rather than by the network. It is this environment that
frame relay addresses.
Contd..
Frame relay can best be thought of as a virtual
leased line. The customer leases a permanent
virtual circuit between two points and can then
send frames, (i.e. packets) of upto 1600 bytes
between them. It is also possible to lease
permanent virtual circuits between a given site
and multiple other sites, so each frame carries a
10-bit number telling which virtual circuit to
use.
The difference between an actual leased line
and a virtual leased line is that with an actual
one, the user can send traffic all day long at the
maximum speed. With a virtual one, data bursts
may be sent at full speed, but the long-term
average usage must be below a pre-determined
Contd..
In addition to competing with leased lines, frame relay also
competes with X.25 permanent virtual circuits, except that it
operates at higher speeds, usually 1.5 mbps, and provides
fewer features.
Frame relay provides a minimal service, primarily a way to
determine the start and end of each frame, and detection of
transmission errors. If a bad frame is received, the frame
relay service simply discards it. It is upto the user to discover
that a frame is missing and take necessary action to recover.
Unlike X.25, frame relay does not provide
acknowledgements or normal flow control. It does have a bit
in the header, however, which one end of a connection can
set to indicate to the other end that problems exist. The use of
this bit is upto the user (computer software writers).
Switched Multi-Megabyte Data

Service ( SMDS)
.SMSD was designed to connect together multiple LANs,
typically at the branch offices and factories of a single
company. It was designed by Bellcore in the 1980s and
deployed in the early 1990s by regional and a few long
distance carriers. SMSD is the first broadband (i.e., high
speed) switched service offered to the public.
To see a situation, in which SMSD would be useful,
consider a company with four offices in four different
cities, each with its own LAN. The company would like to
connect all the LANs, so that packets can go from one
LAN to another. One solution would be to lease six high
speed lines and fully connect the LANs. Such a solution is
certainly possible, but expensive.
SMDS Contd..
Lan 1
Lan 2
Lan 3
Lan 4
Leased Lines
SMDS Contd..
Lan 2
Lan 1
SMSD
Lan 3
Lan 4
SMDS Contd.
The SMSD network acts like a high speed
LAN backbone, allowing packets from any
LAN to flow to any other LAN. Between the
LANs, in the customers offices, and the
SMSD network, in the telephone companys
offices, is a short access line leased from the
telephone company.
Whereas most telephone company services
are designed for continuous traffic, SMSD is
designed to handle bursty traffic. In other
words, once in a while a packet has to be
carried from one LAN to another quickly, but
much of the time there is no LAN to LAN
SMDS Contd.
The leased line solution has the problem of
high monthly bills; once installed, the customer
has to pay for the lines whether or not they are
used continuously. For intermittent traffic,
leased lines are an expensive solution, and
SMSD is priced to compete with them. With n
LANs, a fully connected leased line network
requires leasing n(n-1)/2 possibly long (i.e.,
expensive) lines, whereas SMSD only requires
leasing n short access lines to the nearest
SMSD router.
Since the goal of SMSD is to carry LAN to LAN
traffic, it must be fast enough to do the job. The
standard speed is 45 Mbps. With SMSD, each
LAN connects to a telephone company switch
SMDS Contd.
The basic SMSD service is a simple connectionless packet
delivery service. The packet format is as shown below. It
has three fields; the destination (where the packet is to go
to), the source (who sent it), and a variable length payload
field for upto 9188 bytes of user data. The machine on the
sending LAN that is connected to the access line puts the
packet on the access line, and SMSD makes a best effort
attempt to deliver it to the correct destination. No
guarantee is given.
8 Bytes
Source Address
8 Bytes
Destination
Address
< 9188 Bytes
User Data
SMDS Contd..
The source and destination addresses, consist of a 4-bit
code followed by a telephone number of upto 15
decimal digits. Each digit is coded in a separate 4-bit
field. The telephone numbers contain country code,
area code, and the subscriber number, so the service
could eventually be offered internationally. It was
thought that having decimal telephone numbers as
network addresses would make the new offering seem
familiar to nervous users.
When a packet arrives at the SMSD network, the first
router checks to make sure that the source address
corresponds to the incoming line, to prevent billing
fraud. If the address is incorrect, the packet is simply
discarded. If it is correct, the packet is sent along
towards its destination.
SMDS
Contd...
A useful SMDS feature is broadcasting. The customer can
specify a list of SMDS telephone numbers, and be assigned
a special number for the whole list. Any packet sent to that
number is delivered to all members on that list. The National
Association of Securities Dealers uses this feature of MCIs
SMDS service to broadcast new stock prices to all of its
5,000 members.
An additional user feature is address screening, on both
outgoing and incoming packets. With outgoing screening,
the customer can give a list of telephone numbers and
specify that no packets may be sent to any other addresses.
With incoming screening, only packets from certain prearranged telephone numbers will be accepted. When both
features are enabled, the user can effectively build a private
network with no SMDS connection to the outside world. For
companies with confidential data, this feature is highly
valuable.
SMDS Contd...
The payload can contain any byte sequence the user wishes,
upto 9188 bytes. SMDS does not look at it. It can contain
an Ethernet packet, an IBM token ring or a GM token bus
packet, or anything else. Whatever is present in the payload
field is moved without modification from the source LAN
to the destination LAN.
SMSD handles busy traffic as follows : The router
connected to each access line contains a counter that is
incremented at a constant rate, say once every 10 microsec.
When a packet arrives at the router, a check is made to see
if the counter is greater than the packet length, in bytes. If it
is, the packet is sent without delay and the counter is
decremented by the packet length. If the packet length is
greater than the counter, the packet is rejected.
SMDS Contd.
In effect, with a tick every 10 microsecs the user may send
at an average rate of 1,00,000 bytes/sec, but the burst rate
may be higher. If, for example, the line has been idle for
10 microsecs, the counter will be 1000, and the user will
be allowed to send a 1 kilobyte burst at the full speed of
45 mbps, so it is transmitted in about 180 microsecs. With
a 1,00,000 bytes/sec. Leased line, the same kilobyte would
take 10 msecs. Thus SMSD offers short delays for widely
spaced independent data bursts as long as the average rate
remains below the agreed upon value. This mechanism
provides fast response when needed but prevents users
from using up more bandwidth than they have agreed to
pay for.
MODULE 10
INTELLIGENT NETWORKS
Definition of Intelligent Network

An Intelligent Network (IN) is a service
independent telecommunications network. That is,
intelligence is taken out of the switch and placed in
computer nodes that are distributed throughout the
network. This provides the network operator with
the means to develop and control services more
efficiently. New capabilities can be rapidly
introduced into the network. Once introduced,
services are easily customized to meet individual
customers needs.
Telecom Network Evolution

Plain
Old Telephone Service ( POTS)
Stored Program Control ( SPC)

Common Channel Signaling Network ( CCSN)
Intelligent Network ( IN)
Plain Old Telephone Service

The service logic was hardwired in switching
systems.
Network Operators met switch vendors, discussed
the type of services customers required , negotiated
the switching features that provided the services,
and finally agreed upon a release date for features
availability.
After this, the Network operator planned for the
deployment of the features in switching the network
fabric.
Contd..
This process was compounded for the Network
Operator with switching systems from multiple
vendors.
As a result, services were not offered ubiquitously
across an operators serving area. So, a customer in
one end of a city may not have had the same service
offerings as a person in another part of the city.
Also, once services were implemented, they were
not easily modified to meet individual customer
requirements.
As a result of this process, it took years to plan and
implement services.
Stored Program Control

In the mid-1960s, Stored Program Control
(SPC) switching systems were introduced.
SPC was a major step forward because now
service logic was programmable instead of being
hardwired. As a result, it was now easier to
introduce new services.
Nevertheless, this service logic concept was not
modular. It became increasingly more
complicated to add new services because of the
dependency between the service and the service
specific logic.
Essentially, service logic that was used for one
service could not be used for another service.
Common Channel Signaling

Network
Signaling System No.7 (SS7) is the protocol

that runs over the CCSN
The SS7 Network consists of packet
data links and packet data switching
systems called Signaling Transfer
Points
(STPs).
The SS7
network separates the call
setup information and talk path from the
common trunks that run between
switching systems.
The call setup information travels
outside the common trunk path over the
SS7 network.
The type of information transferred
includes permission for the call setup,
Contd...
STP
SWITCH
STP
SWITC
H
Intelligent Networks
In this the service logic is external to the
switching systems and located in databases called,
service control points (SCPs).
Two services evolved viz. 800 (or free phone)
service and the calling card verification (or
Alternate Billing Service, ABS) service.
Because of the service specific nature of the
technology, these services required two separate
SCPs.
In order to communicate with the associated
service logic, software was deployed in switching
systems.
This switching system software enabled the
switching system to recognise when it was
necessary to communicate with a SCP via the SS7
network.
Contd..
STP
SCP
STP
Service Specific Management

T
SWITC
H
SWITCH
T
Benefits of IN
Introduce new services rapidly : IN provides the
capability to provide new services or modify
existing ones rapidly.
Provide customer customization : In IN it is
possible to provide customer customization like
choice of common carrier, barring calls to areas or
even specific telephone numbers.
Establish Vendor Independence : No dependence
on vendors for providing services.
IN SERVICES
Calling Card Service
Freephone Service
Premium Rate Service
Tele Voting
Virtual Private Network
Calling Card Service

A service user can initiate the Calling Card
Service and place a call from a credit card pay
phone quite easily by using their credit card.
Insert the card into the credit card telephone,
dial the specified Personal Identification Number
(PIN) and the telephone number.
The cost of the call is automatically charged to
the credit card account of the service subscriber.
BENEFITS
Convenience :A convenient way of paying
telephone bills while on business trips/holidays.
The service subscriber receives a detailed monthly
bill of the charges for the calls they made during
the previous month.
Perfect Security : The credit card is protected
against unauthorized use. Entering the wrong PIN
several times in a row cancels the validity of the
card.
The calling card access code, PIN, CCN and
expiry date is set in the calling card.
FREEPHONE
This service allows a user to place a call to a
specific destination with the cost of that call being
charged to the called party.
The service subscriber can change the
destination to which this service applies;
according to the purpose or time of day.
Protection against unauthorized use can be
achieved by having the user dial a specified PIN
when initiating the FPH service.
BENEFITS
Payment by the called party encourages increased
calls from potential customers
Examples of Use :
Mail order sales
Reservations
Help lines.
PREMIUM RATE SERVICE

Premium Rate (PRM) Service
allows telecoms service customers to
offer charged information services to
callers on the PSTN.
Telecom collects the information
fees and call charges from service
users.
Telecom retains part of the
collected information fees as its
commission.
BENEFITS
Examples of Use :
Counseling services
Party line service
Special information services
Tele voting service

This service allows audience
participation in polls conducted on TV
and Radio Programs provided by service
subscribers.
By using VOT the service subscriber
providing the program can take a poll
easily without having any dedicated
telephone or private facilities.
The service subscriber presents
possible options or conditions and the
telephone number (VOT number) to
access in the program; and the viewers or
listeners call the number to cast their
votes.
The service subscriber can obtain the
result of the poll in real time manner,
BENEFITS
To gauge popularity of a product or service.
When VOT is used reverse charging is

possible.
VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK

Virtual Private Network (VPN) allows the
service subscriber to set up a private network
(e.g. : a corporate communication network)
using the existing PSTN resources.
The service subscriber can use services
similar to those provided by an ordinary
private network, including private numbering
plan, call transfer, call hold etc., without
installing any dedicated lines or any type of
private facilities, such as a PBX.
BENEFITS
A company can reduce its equipment
investment and communication costs.
No maintenance cost.
MODULE 11
WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP TECHNOLOGY
WLL CONCEPTS
WLL stands for wireless in local loop.
It is an access technology using which a subscriber
can access a network.
WLL illiminates the necessity for laying the
outdoor plant, which is expensive, messy and time
consuming.
The WLL technology permits rapid rollout of lines
to subscribers, permits flexibility in re-orienting the
network if user density patterns change and is less
expensive in terms of cost per connection.
On the downside the WLL technology permits very
little bandwidth because the technology was fine
tuned for voice transfer and is currently not very
promising for data communications.
WLL CONFIGURATION
SSU
SSU
WIRE, MICROWAVE
SSU
V5.2
SSU
V-SAT, FIBRE
SWITCH
SSU
B
S
C
SSU
CELL SITE
CONTD..
The WLL configuration shown shows three main

elements namely the Single Subscriber Unit (SSU), the
Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station
Controller (BSC).
The SSU is located at the subscribers premises; the
BTS at the cell site and the BSC is co-located with the
switch.
The wireless coverage area of a cell site is called a cell.
Each cell is divided into 3 sectors and the wireless
transmissions within a sector is controlled by a BTS.
This implies that there are 3 BTS per cell.
One BSC bay can control transmissions from 2 BTSs
Hence, one and a half BSC bays can control one cell
site.
The radio coverage area of a cell is approximately 3-5
WLL SERVICE SPECTRUM

The transmission or uplink frequency spectrum is from
869 to 879.5 MHz and the reception or downlink
frequency spectrum is from 914 to 924.5 MHz.
Each RF channel is 30 kHz.
This implies that there are a total of 350 Tx-Rx RF
channels available for the WLL service.
Although the radio coverage area is circular for a cell, it
is conceptualized as hexagonal for planning purposes.
This implies that each cell has six neighbouring cells,
which require different frequency Tx-Rx pairs to avoid
interference.
CONTD..
Hence, the 350 Tx-Rx RF channels must be
allotted within seven cells and within a cell among
three sectors.
Hence, allotting Tx-Rx RF channels at a rate of 16
RF channels per sector 336 RF channels get utilised;
leaving a reserve of 14 RF channels.
The same Tx-Rx RF pairs can be re-used in more
distant cells as they are not likely to interfere as
transmission powers are low.
This technique of frequency re-use is called seven
by three re-use pattern.
WLL ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES

FDMA
In this the allotted frequency band is
sub-divided on a frequency basis and the
channels thus created are allotted on a
dynamic basis to a subscriber.
For e.g. suppose the trans frequency
spectrum is 10 MHz and the receive
frequency spectrum is 10 MHz and
suppose 10 kHz is allotted per voice
channel.
The total number of duplex channels
available are 1,000.
This implies that only 1,000
simultaneous calls can occur within a
cell and a cluster of six neighbouring
CONTD..
TDMA
In TDMA, the users share the radio spectrum

in time domain.
An individual user is allocated a time slot.
During this time slot, the user accesses the
whole frequency band allocated to the system
(wideband TDMA) or only part of the band
(Narrowband TDMA).
In TDMA, transmission takes place in bursts
from the SSU to the base station (uplink path),
with only one user transmitting to the base
station at any given time.
In the downlink path (from base station to the
mobile), the base station usually transmits
continuously, with the mobile listening only
during the assigned time slot.
CONTD..
E-TDMA
E-TDMA is similar to TDMA except that E-TDMA uses
half rate voice coding at 4.8 kbps that permits six calls per
RF channel.
E-TDMA supporters must solve many technical
problems, voice quality being the most important one.
E-TDMA does not appear to be a serious contender in
the digital access technology.
CONTD..
CDMA
In this the digitized voice channels are spread by pseudo
random codes which form an orthogonal set i.e., each code
has an auto-correlation of unity and a cross co-relation with
all others of zero.
Hence, all the spread voice signals can be sent
simultaneously at the same frequency and time and can be
separated at the distant end by using the same pseudo
random codes.
Theoretically CDMA can handle infinite channels but
practically the limitation is our inability to design perfectly
matched filters. On the upside CDMA offers a capacity
much higher than FDMA or TDMA and is likely to be the
access technology of choice in the future. In addition to
capacity increase; CDMA offers better multi-path
resistance, superior voice quality and increased call privacy.
POWER MANAGEMENT
Since wireless communications are unprotected, it is
necessary to impose stringent spectral and power
management to avoid interference.
The power transmitted from the BTS to the SSUs in a
RF channel is approximately 6 to 8 watts.
However, the uplink power from SSU to BTS is a
maximum of 1 watt.
The choice of power level to be used at the SSU is not
decided by the customer but is controlled by the BTS
dynamically through its control channels.
This ability of the BTS to control the power of the
SSUs ensures a minimal chance of interference.
CELL CAPACITY
We are aware that at present 16 RF channel Tx-Rx
frequency pairs can be allotted per sector.
Each RF channel is of 30 KHz.
Each RF channel can transmit 48.6 kbps.
The waveform coding scheme used for transmitting 48.6
kbps between BTS and SSUs is called /4 Differential
Quadraphase shift keying (DQPSK).
In E-TDMA access the 48.6 kbps can support six
multiplexed subscribers transmitting a maximum of 8.1
kbps.
In the 8.1 kbps permitted per subscriber 3.3 kbps constitute
the error correction and parity check overheads.
The balance 4.8 kbps also contains about 0.9 kbps of other
overheads and a voice payload of 3.9 kbps.
CONTD..
This implies that a total of 96 channels are available per
sector.
28 channels are used for call setup functions, supervision,
management and other house-keeping functions.
Hence, 68 revenue earning channels are available per
sector.
Assuming per subscriber traffic as 0.1 erlang during the
busy hour; only 680 subscribers can be offered the service in
a sector.
This implies that a cell can accommodate approximately
about 2,000 subscribers.
The BTS to BSC traffic transfer is done on an E1 line. The
16 RF channels output of 48.6 kbps each is mapped on 16 x
64 kbps channels of the E1
WLL SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Main Components
Switch
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Multiple Subscriber Unit (MSU)
Single Subscriber Unit (SSU)
Operations & Maintenance Centre (OMC)
Network Administration & Subscriber Services
(NASS)
Universal Monitor & Controller (UMC)
Functions of Main Components

Switch
Interface between PSTN and BSC : The
PSTN interface is a conventional class 5
office to Tandem interface whereas the
switch interface with BSC is based on a
standard V5.2 interface.
Switch processes all requests for calls,
controls access to system features &
performs all switching functions.
CONTD..
Base Station Controller
(BSC)
Handles call processing
Voice compression &
decompression
Manages the BTS
Provides V5.2 interface to
the switch.
CONTD..
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Provides one transmit and two receive antennas in a
diversity reception mode to overcome the effects of fast
fading. The Antenna can be omni directional or
sectorized.
Amplifies, down converts and demodulates RF
signals received from MSUs/SSUs
Distributes the signals to multiple channel unit
modules.
Combines transmit carriers from multiple channel
unit modules.
Modulates, upconverts & amplifies transmit carriers
before sending the signal to the Transmit Antenna for
transmission to the MSUs/SSUs.
CONTD..
Multiple Subscriber Unit
(MSU)
Provides telecom services for a
group of co-located stationary
subscribers.
Capacity for 96 subscribers.
Equipment includes MSU
cabinet, modules, antenna and
telephones.
CONTD..
Single Subscriber Unit (SSU)
Provides residential telephone
service to subscribers without
traditional telephone lines.
CONTD..
Operations & maintenance Centre (OMC)
Provides screens to help the operator support
operation, administration and maintenance
activities.
Can perform remote configuration of BTS cell
frequencies.
Download software to BSCs
Manage subscriber records.
Allows for diagnosis and response to system
faults.
Collect and analyse performance statistics.
CONTD..
Network Administration Subscriber Services
(NASS)
Registration and Address Translation :
Maps the mobile identification number (MIN)
against the equipment line number (ELN)
Authentication of fixed subscriber units :
Validates the subscriber for system
registration and blacklisting of fraudulent
users.
Subscriber database information : Each
system subscriber will be configured in the
subscriber profile database.
CONTD...
Universal Monitor & Controller (UMC)
Remote monitoring of cell site
Transmits alarm conditions to the
OMC.
S.No Feature
.
a.
AC
input
voltage range
b.
Battery backup
Talk
Stand-by
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Battery
Recharge time
Battery
life
expectancy
Duplex
Fax
Data
Power
consumption
Internal
memory
SSU-Basic
SSU-Plus
SSU-Turbo
SSU-Ultra
100 240 vac

47 63 Hz
100 240 vac

47 63 Hz
100 240 vac

47 63 Hz
100 240 vac

47 63 Hz
Talk
: 1
Talk
: 1 Talk
: 1
Talk
: 1+
Stand-by : 8 Stand-by : 8 Stand-by : 8 hour
hours
hours
hours
Stand-by : 16 +
hours
12 hours
12 hours
12 hours
2 hours
200 cycles
200 cycles
200 cycles
400 + cycles
Half
2400
-0.54A
Half
2400
-0.54A
Half
2400/ 4800
-0.54A
Full
9600
9600
0.26A
1M
1M
1M
2M
CALL PROCESSING
When a subscriber lifts his handset, the off hook condition is sensed by the BTS
on a control or call set up channel.
The BTS informs the SSU to give a dial tone to the subscriber on the control
channel.
The subscriber dials a number
This number along with the MIN of the subscriber is passed via the control
channel to the BSC via the BTS.
The signaling between the BTS and BSC goes on the common signaling
channel of the E1 link between the BTS and BSC.
The NASS maps the identification number with the equipment line number.
The BSC uses the ELN information to access the subscriber port in the V5.2
interface with the switch and passes the dialed digits to the switch.
CONTD..
It also allots a RF channel and time slot from the pool allotted to the specific
BTS.
The allotment is conveyed via the signaling channel between the BTS & BSC
and onwards to the SSU via the control channel.
The SSU tunes to the required frequency allotted.
In the mean time the switch creates a path to the called subscriber.
The ELN information is then used for billing the customer.
When the customer replaces the handset, a disconnect message is
sent from the SSU via the control channel to the BTS. The BTS
in turn informs the BSC and the channel allotted is released
and the billing software informed to stop the billing process.
CONTD..
In case of an incoming call, the switch routes the
call to the appropriate BSC, which maps the directory
number to the ELN number.
The ELN number is mapped to the MIN number of
the subscriber.
This number is then sent to the appropriate BTS,
which pages this number to the SSUs.
The concerned SSU recognizes its unique MIN
number & regenerates its number & sends on the
control channel to the BTS.
The BTS forwards the MIN number to the BSC,
which now allots an RF channel and time slot from the
pool allotted to the BTS.
The BTS conveys this allotment to the SSU with
instructions to give a ring to the subscriber.
The SSU tunes to the frequency allotted and on the
subscriber lifting the handset, the call is completed.
The on hook condition is sensed by the BTS and
conveyed to the BSC, which informs the switch and
billing begins.
MODULE 11
CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The St Louis System( MTS)
The Newyork System( IMTS)
The Chicago System (AMPS)
CELLULAR OBJECTIVES
To provide mobile radio phone service to any number of
subscribers in a metropolitan area called CGSA (Cellular
Geographic Service Area).
To do the above using the same limited spectrum allotted
for the service.
To provide same quality of voice grade service available
from a wireline phone.
To support mobile as well as hand held operation.
To standardize the hand held device so that the mobile
station could be used over the entire continental united
states irrespective of the Service Operator
CELLULAR CONCEPT
Divide a metropolitan area (CGSA) into hexagonal cells. The
hexagonal structure was chosen because a hexagon resembles a circle;
the radiation pattern of an omni-directional antenna does not leave any
gaps.
Place low power base stations in each cell called a cell site. Allocate
mutually exclusive Tx-Rx frequency channels available to a cell and
its six neighbouring cells
Re-use Tx-Rx frequency channels in far away non-interfering cells
and impose strict spectrum and radiation control.
Exploit the capture effect exhibited by frequency modulation.
Cellular Configuration
CELLULAR CONFIGURATION
The Mobile Station : It consists of a transreceiver, antennae and a
logic unit. The mobile station can work in the entire cellular range of
frequencies allotted to the service.
The Cell Site : It consists of a low power base station with a fixed
number of radio channels allotted. The cell site can monitor the signal
strength in each radio channel. Each cell site has one or more call set up
channels called paging channels. The cell site can communicate on its
control channels with the logic unit in the mobile station as well as the
Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office (MTSO). Each radio
channel in the cell site is controlled by a special purpose computer.
The Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office (MTSO) : It is a
switch, which controls all cell sites in the CGSA. It performs the
switching and billing functions. The MTSO knows the status of all calls
in the CGSA. Note that there is only one MTSO in the entire CGSA.
The MTSO interfaces with the PSTN for routing network calls to and
from the PSTN.
Frequency Reuse
Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to
avoid interference or crosstalk
Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
Transmission power controlled to limit power at that
frequency escaping to adjacent cells
The issue is to determine how many cells must
intervene between two cells using the same frequency
Approaches to Cope with

Increasing Capacity
Adding new channels
Frequency borrowing frequencies are taken from
adjacent cells by congested cells
Cell splitting cells in areas of high usage can be
split into smaller cells
Cell sectoring cells are divided into a number of
wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own set of
channels
Microcells antennas move to buildings, hills, and
lamp posts
Steps in an MTSO Controlled

Call between Mobile Users
Mobile unit initialization

Mobile-originated call
Paging
Call accepted
Ongoing call
Handoff
CALL PROCESSING
On Switching on the Mobile
When a mobile unit is powered ON, it enters a state called the Idle state
In this state the mobile scans the pre-fixed paging channels of all the
cell sites and finds the strongest signal
The strongest signal would invariably be from the cell site in which the
mobile is located.
On discovering the strongest signal, the cell site locks on to this paging
channel
If the mobile is on the move this signal is likely to become weak.
On the signal becoming weak, the cell site starts re-scanning and relocks on to the strongest paging channel signal.
CONTD..
Incoming Call Processing
When a fixed number dials the mobile number, the land
lines system routes the call to the MTSO which collects the
dialed digits.
These digits are mapped onto the mobiles MIN.
The MIN is sent to all cell sites and paged on the paging
channel.
The called subscribers mobile which is locked onto the
paging channel of the cell site nearest to it, recognizes its
MIN.
It regenerates its MIN and transmits on the paging
channel to the cell site it is locked on to.
The cell site sends the MIN to the MTSO.
The MTSO, which has the status of radio channels in use
in that cell, allots a radio channel to the mobile via the cell
site.
The mobile switches to the allotted radio channel and
gives the subscriber a ring.
CONTD..
The subscriber lifts his handset.
The ON hook condition is sensed by the cell site

and conveyed to the MTSO who makes the PSTN
connection.
The MIN number is used for commencing the
billing operation.
As the call progresses the cell site monitors the
call signal level.
When the level falls below a certain threshold, the
cell site informs the MTSO who allots a new
channel in the adjoining cell.
The cell site conveys this information on the
working channel using blank and burst to the logic
unit.
The logic unit switches to the new channel and
the MTSO simultaneously switches the PSTN
connection.
This operation is called a hand-off and takes
about 0.2 seconds and is not noticeable in a voice
Additional Functions in an
MTSO Controlled Call
Call blocking
Call termination
Call drop
Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile
subscriber
Mobile Radio Propagation

Effects
Signal strength
Must be strong enough between base station and mobile
unit to maintain signal quality at the receiver
Must not be so strong as to create too much cochannel
interference with channels in another cell using the
same frequency band
Fading
Signal propagation effects may disrupt the signal and
cause errors
Handoff Performance Metrics

Cell blocking probability probability of a new
call being blocked
Call dropping probability probability that a call
is terminated due to a handoff
Call completion probability probability that an
admitted call is not dropped before it terminates
Probability of unsuccessful handoff probability
that a handoff is executed while the reception
conditions are inadequate
Handoff Performance Metrics
Handoff blocking probability probability that a handoff

cannot be successfully completed
Handoff probability probability that a handoff occurs
before call termination
Rate of handoff number of handoffs per unit time
Interruption duration duration of time during a handoff
in which a mobile is not connected to either base station
Handoff delay distance the mobile moves from the
point at which the handoff should occur to the point at
which it does occur
Handoff Strategies Used to

Determine Instant of Handoff
Relative signal strength

Relative signal strength with threshold
Relative signal strength with hysteresis
Relative signal strength with hysteresis and
threshold
Prediction techniques
Power Control
Design issues making it desirable to include
dynamic power control in a cellular system
Received power must be sufficiently above the
background noise for effective communication
Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal
from the mobile
Reduce cochannel interference, alleviate health concerns, save
battery power
In SS systems using CDMA, its desirable to equalize

the received power level from all mobile units at the BS
Types of Power Control

Open-loop power control
Depends solely on mobile unit
No feedback from BS
Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to
fluctuations in signal strength
Closed-loop power control

Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on
metric of performance
BS makes power adjustment decision and
communicates to mobile on control channel
Differences Between First and

Second Generation Systems
Digital traffic channels first-generation systems are
almost purely analog; second-generation systems are
digital
Encryption all second generation systems provide
encryption to prevent eavesdropping
Error detection and correction second-generation
digital traffic allows for detection and correction, giving
clear voice reception
Channel access second-generation systems allow
channels to be dynamically shared by a number of users
Mobile Wireless TDMA Design

Considerations
Number of logical channels (number of time slots
in TDMA frame): 8
Maximum cell radius (R): 35 km
Frequency: region around 900 MHz
Maximum vehicle speed (Vm):250 km/hr
Maximum coding delay: approx. 20 ms
Maximum delay spread (m): 10 s
Bandwidth: Not to exceed 200 kHz (25 kHz per
channel)
GSM Network Architecture
Mobile Station
Mobile station communicates across Um interface
(air interface) with base station transceiver in same
cell as mobile unit
Mobile equipment (ME) physical terminal, such
as a telephone or PCS
ME includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors
and subscriber identity module (SIM)
GSM subscriber units are generic until SIM is

inserted
SIMs roam, not necessarily the subscriber devices
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

BSS consists of base station controller and
one or more base transceiver stations (BTS)
Each BTS defines a single cell
Includes radio antenna, radio transceiver and a
link to a base station controller (BSC)
BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages

handoff of mobile unit from one cell to
another within BSS, and controls paging
Network Subsystem (NS)

NS provides link between cellular network and
public switched telecommunications networks
Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs
Authenticates users and validates accounts
Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users
Central element of NS is the mobile switching

center (MSC)
Mobile Switching Center

(MSC) Databases
Home location register (HLR) database stores

information about each subscriber that belongs to it
Visitor location register (VLR) database maintains
information about subscribers currently physically in
the region
Authentication center database (AuC) used for
authentication activities, holds encryption keys
Equipment identity register database (EIR) keeps
track of the type of equipment that exists at the
mobile station
TDMA Format Time Slot Fields

Trail bits allow synchronization of transmissions
from mobile units
Encrypted bits encrypted data
Stealing bit - indicates whether block contains data or
is "stolen"
Training sequence used to adapt parameters of
receiver to the current path propagation characteristics
Strongest signal selected in case of multipath propagation
Guard bits used to avoid overlapping with other

bursts
GSM Speech Signal Processing
GSM Signaling Protocol

Architecture
Functions Provided by Protocols

Protocols above the link layer of the GSM
signaling protocol architecture provide
specific functions:
Radio resource management

Mobility management
Connection management
Mobile application part (MAP)
BTS management
Advantages of CDMA Cellular

Frequency diversity frequency-dependent
transmission impairments have less effect on signal
Multipath resistance chipping codes used for
CDMA exhibit low cross correlation and low
autocorrelation
Privacy privacy is inherent since spread spectrum
is obtained by use of noise-like signals
Graceful degradation system only gradually
degrades as more users access the system
ITUs View of ThirdGeneration Capabilities

Voice quality comparable to the public switched
telephone network
144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed
motor vehicles over large areas
384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving
slowly over small areas
Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use
Symmetrical / asymmetrical data transmission rates
Support for both packet switched and circuit switched
data services
ITUs View of Third-Generation

Capabilities
An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect
efficiently the common asymmetry between
inbound and outbound traffic
More efficient use of the available spectrum in
general
Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
Flexibility to allow the introduction of new
services and technologies
Module 13
STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
Many network vendors and suppliers exist, each with their own
ideas of how things should be done.
Without coordination, there would be complete chaos and users
would be able to get nothing done. The only way out is to agree
upon some network standards.
Not only do standards allow different computers to communicate,
but they also increase the market for products adhering to the
standard, which leads to mass production, economies of scale in
manufacturing, VLSI implementation and other benefits that
decrease price and further increase acceptance.
TYPES OF STANDARDS
Standards fall into two categories
De facto standards are those that have just happened,
without any formal plan.
The IBM PC and its successors are de facto standards
for small office computers because dozens of
manufacturers have chosen to copy IBMs machines
very closely.
UNIX is the de facto standard for operating systems in
university computer science departments.
CONTD..
De jure standards are formal, legal
standards adopted by some authorized
standardization body. International
standardization authorities are generally
divided into two classes; those established
by treaty among national governments and
voluntary, non treaty organizations.
Telecom Standards
In 1865, representatives from many European governments met to form

the predecessor to todays ITU (International Telecommunication Union).
ITUs job was standardizing international telecommunication, which in
those days meant telegraphy.
Even then it was clear that if half the countries used Morse code and the
other half used some other code, there was going to be a problem.
When the telephone was put into international service, ITU took over the
job of standardizing telephony as well.
In 1947, ITU became an agency of the United Nations.
CONTD..
ITU SECTORS
Radio communications sector (ITU-R)
Telecommunications Standardization
Sector (ITU-T)
Development Sector (ITU-D)
CONTD..
ITU-R is concerned with allocating radio frequencies worldwide to the

competing interest groups.
ITU-T is concerned with telephone and data communication systems.
ITU-T has five classes of members:
Administrations (national PTTs)
Recognized Private Operators (e.g. : AT&T, MCI, BT, etc.)
Regional telecommunications organizations (e.g. : the European ETSI)
.Telecommunications vendors & scientific organizations.
.Other interested organizations (e.g. : banking and airline networks)
CONTD..
ITU-T has about 200 administrations, 100 private
operators, and several hundred other members.
Only administrations may vote, but all members may
participate in ITU-Ts work.
ITU-Ts task is to make technical recommendations about
telephone, telegraph and data communication interfaces.
These often become internationally recognized standards.
It should be noted that ITU-T recommendations are
technically only
suggestions that governments can adopt
or ignore, as they wish, but at the price of cutting itself off
from everyone else.
The real work of ITU-T is done in study Groups, often as
large as 400 people. To make it possible to get anything at
all done, the study Groups are divided into working parties,
which are in turn divided into Expert Teams, which are in
turn divided into adhoc groups.
CONTD..
Despite all this, ITU-T actually gets things done.
Its current output runs to about 5,000 pages of
recommendations a year.
The members chip in to cover ITUs costs. Big, rich countries are
suppose to pay up to 30 contributing units a year; small, poor
ones can get away with 1/16 of a contributory unit (a contributory
unit is 2,50,000 dollars).
It is a testimony to ITU-Ts value that everyone pays their fair
share, even though contributions are completely voluntary.
The Standards World

International Standards are produced by ISO (International
Standards Organization), a voluntary, non-treaty organization
founded in 1946.
Its members are the national standards organizations of the 89
member countries. These members include ANSI (U.S.), BSI (Great
Britain), AFNOR (France), DIN (Germany), and 85 others.
ISO issues standards on a vast number of subjects, ranging from
nuts and bolts (literally) to telephone pole coatings. Over 5,000
standards have been issued, including the OSI standards. ISO has
almost 200 technical committees, numbered in the order of their
creation, each dealing with a specific subject. TC1 deals with the
nuts and bolts (standardizing screw thread pitches). TC97 deals with
computers & information processing. Each TC has sub-committees
(SCs) divided into working groups (WGs).
CONTD...
The real work is done largely in the WGs by over 1,00,000 volunteers. Many
of these volunteers are assigned to work on ISO matters by their employers,
whose products are being standardized. Others are government officials keen on
having their countrys way of doing things become the international standard.
Academic experts are also active in many of the WGs.
On issues of telecommunication standards, ISO & ITU-T often cooperate (ISO
is a member of ITU-T) to avoid the irony of two official and mutually
incompatible international standards.
Another major player in the standards world is IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers), the largest professional organization in the world. In
addition, to publishing scores of journals and running numerous conferences
each year, IEEE has a standardization group that develops standards in the area
of electrical engineering and computing. In fact, all LAN standards belong to
IEEE.
INTERNET STANDARDS
The worldwide Internet has its own standardization mechanisms, very
different from those of ITU-T and ISO.
ITU-T and ISO meetings are populated by corporate officials and government
civil servants for whom standardization is their job.
Internet people, on the other hand, definitely prefer anarchy as a matter of
principle, but sometimes agreement is needed to make things work. Thus
standards, however regrettable, are occasionally needed.
In 1983 an informal committee called the IAB (Internet Activities Board)
oversaw the activities of the Internet.
By 1989, the Internet had grown so large that the highly informal working
style of the IAB no longer worked
. Many vendors by then were offering TCP/IP products and did not want to
change them because ten researchers in the IAB thought of a better idea.
CONTD..
In 1989, the IAB was reorganized into the IRTF (Internet
Research Task Force) and the IETF (Internet Engineering
Task Force).
The IRTF concentrates on long term research whereas the

IETF deals with short term engineering issues.
To become a proposed standard, the basic idea must be
completely explained in an RFC (Request for Comment).
To advance to the draft stage, there must be a working
implementation that has been thoroughly tested by atleast
two independent sites for 4 months.
If the IAB is convinced that the idea is sound and the
software works, it can declare the RFC to be an Internet
Standard.
Close on 2000 RFCs exist.

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TELECOMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS

Module1( Transmission Fundamentals)

Data , Signal & Transmission

Data Communication Terms

Examples of Analog and Digital

Analog signals can propagate analog and digital

Reasons for Choosing Data

Analog data, digital signal

Digital data, analog signal

Analog data, analog signal

Analog signal carrying digital data

Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a

s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +

Phase () - measure of the relative position in time

Sine Wave Parameters

Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the

(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s

note: 2 radians = 360 = 1 period

Sine Wave Parameters

Relationship between Data Rate

About Channel Capacity

Concepts Related to Channel

With multilevel signaling

A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low

Shannon Capacity Formula

Represents theoretical maximum that can be

Example of Nyquist and Shannon

Using Shannons formula

Example of Nyquist and Shannon

General Frequency Ranges

Microwave frequency range

Radio frequency range

Infrared frequency range

Reasons for Widespread Use of

Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

American Standard based on T Series of Multiplexers

576 voice channels

T4(7T3s) 274.176Mbps 4032 voice channels

120 voice channels

480 voice channels

1920 voice channels

7680 voice channels

SONET/SDH BASIC RATE

SONET/SDH BASIC RATE

SONET/SDH BASIC RATE

SONET/SDH BASIC RATE

SONET/SDH DATA RATES

SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES

Reasons for Choosing Encoding

Analog data, digital signal

Reasons for Choosing Encoding

Analog data, analog signal

Signal Encoding Criteria

An increase in data rate increases bit error rate

Factors Used to Compare

Factors Used to Compare

Cost and complexity

Basic Encoding Techniques

Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

Phase-shift keying (PSK)

Basic Encoding Techniques

where the carrier signal is Acos(2fct)