MSE 451 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

D R . E . G I KU N O O

FIRST SEMESTER 2016/2017

MON 15:00 16:55 AND THURS 16:00
17:55

COURSE INFORMATION
Lecturer: Dr. Emmanuel Gikunoo
Office : 321 New Block
Email: egiks@live.com
Lecture Hours: Mondays, 15:00
16:55
Thursdays, 16:00 17:55
T.A: Maxwell Owusu
Email: mowusu69@gmail.com

Future drivers of the

Resource
Depletion

world:
The environment,

Materials
Synthesis

Extraction
(e.g.
Metals)

Energy and
Environment
(renewable
energy
resources,
waste
management)

The relationship between resource depletion,

metal extraction, materials synthesis and the
environment.

Health
Energy , and
Convenience and
Comfort
There
is a strong relationship
between resource depletion,
metal extraction, materials
synthesis and the environment.

WHAT IS A COMPOSITE?
Composite is a material which is made up of two or more distinct (i.e.
macroscopic, not microscopic) materials
Composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to
composite) is a material made from two or more constituent materials
with significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when
combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components.
The individual components remain separate and distinct within the
finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons:
common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less
expensive when compared to traditional materials.

WHAT IS A COMPOSITE?
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are
light as well as strong.

By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and reinforcement

material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application.

Composites also provide design flexibility because many of them can be

moulded into complex shapes.
The downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more
efficient, the raw materials are often expensive.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ILLUSTRATED
Stiff
Strong
Tough
Light

All OK !

Not stiff enough (need bigger E)

Not strong enough (need bigger y )

Not tough enough (need bigger Kic)

Too heavy (need lower )

OBJECTIVE
To establish fundamental basis in the field of composite
materials.
Develop curiosity and interest in and acquire an appropriate
knowledge in composite materials;
Apply the knowledge gained from the study of various
materials in formulating and understanding composite
materials; and
Become aware of the social, economic, environmental and
technological implications of the use of composite
materials; and show concern for the environment and
society.

COVERAGE
General introduction to various kinds of composite
materials.
Metal Matrix Composite (MMC), Ceramic Matrix Composite
(CMC), Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC), and other special
composites.
Fabrication of composite materials
Theoretical calculations of various properties of composite
materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS..
1. What are the classes and types of composites?
2. Why are composites used instead of metals, ceramics, or
polymers?
3. How do we estimate composite stiffness & strength?
4. What are some typical applications?

QUIZ 1
1.List the various types of materials
2.List THREE (3) of the future drivers of the
world
3.List any THREE (3) major contents you
expect to be treated under this course

COURSE CONTENT
Introduction to composite materials
Fibres and Matrices
Fabrication of composite materials
Behaviour of unidirectional composites
Short-fibre composites
Analyses of various composite materials
Performance of various fibre composites: Fatigue, Impact, and
Environmental effects of composite materials

REFERENCES

B. D. Agarwal, L. J. Broutman, and K. Chandrashekhara, Analysis and

Performance of Fiber Composites, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 2006.

D. Hull and T. W. Clyne, An Introduction to Composite Materials, 2nd

Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1996.

K. K. Chawla, Composite Materials: Science and Engineering, 2nd

Edition, Springer Science Inc., New York, 1998.

M. F. Ashby and D. R. H. Jones, Engineering Materials 1: An

Introduction to Properties and Applications, 2nd Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann (1996).

W. D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering An

Introduction, 7th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2006.

D. R, Askeland and P. P. Phule, The Science and Engineering of

Grading
Project

10

Quizzes

Assignments

MidSem

10

Final Exam

70

Total

100
13

PROJECT
3 STUDENTS PER GROUP
Identify a local product/application made from
composite materials. What alternate materials can be
used for same device/application. Discuss those
alternate materials and the benefits obtained from
using the composite material(s).

Note: Each group should submit their proposed topic,

MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND CHOICE

Engineers make things. They make them out of materials. These materials
have to support loads, to insulate or conduct heat and electricity, to
accept or reject magnetic flux, to transmit or reflect light, to survive in
often-hostile surroundings, and to do all this without damage to the
environment or costing too much.
And there is the partner in all this. To make something out of a material
you also need a process. Not just any process the one you choose has to
be compatible with the material you plan to use. Sometimes it is the
process that is the dominant partner and a material-mate must be found
that is compatible with it. It is a marriage. Compatibility is not easily found
many marriages fail and material failure can be catastrophic, with
issues of liability and compensation.

MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND CHOICE

This sounds like food for lawyers, and sometimes it is: some specialists
make their living as expert witnesses in court cases involving failed
materials. But our aim here is not contention; rather, it is to give a vision of
the materials universe (since, even on the remotest planets you will find the
same elements) and of the universe of processes, and to provide methods
and tools for choosing them to ensure a happy, durable union.
But engineers have been making things out of materials for centuries, and
successfully. Why do we need new ways to choose them? In the stone age,
the number of materials available to engineers was small a few hundred
at most. There were no synthetic polymers there are now over 45,000 of
them. There were no light alloys (aluminium was first established as an
engineering material only in the 20th century) now there are thousands.
There were no high-performance composites now there are hundreds of
them. Almost all the materials we use today were developed in the last 100
years. And this number is enormous: over 160,000 materials are available

MATERIALS, PROCESSES AND CHOICE

With the ever-increasing drive for performance, economy and efficiency,
and the imperative to avoid damage to the environment, making the right
choice becomes very important. Innovative design means the imaginative
exploitation of the properties offered by materials.
Fortunately another thing has changed. We now have digital information
storage and manipulation. Computer-aided design is now a standard part
of an engineers training, and it is backed up by widely available packages
for solid modelling, finite-element analysis, optimization, and for material
and process selection. Software for the last of these the selection of
materials and processes draws on databases of the attributes of
materials and processes, documenting their mutual compatibility, and
allows them to be searched and displayed in ways that enable selections
that best meet the requirements of a design.

GETTING MATERIALS ORGANIZED: THE

MATERIALS TREE

COMPOSITES: NECESSITY
Why do you need composite materials?
Enhanced desired properties
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Strength
Stiffness
Toughness
Corrosion resistance
Wear resistance
Reduced weight
Fatigue life
Thermal/electrical insulation and conductivity
Acoustic insulation
Energy dissipation
Attractiveness, cost,

Tailorable properties

DEFINITIONS
A composite material is often shortened to composites or called
composition materials, are engineered or naturally occurring materials
made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the
macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure.
The two or more constituent materials consist of one or more discontinuous
components (particles/fibres/reinforcement) placed in a continuous medium
(matrix).

In a fibre composite, the matrix binds together the fibres, transfers loads
between the fibres and protects them from the environment and external
damage.

COMPOSITE CONSTITUENTS
The constituents in a composite retain their identity such that
they can be physically identified and they exhibit an interface
between one another.

Schematic illustration of a composite

COMPOSITION OF COMPOSITES

High strength
High stiffness
Low density

Good shear properties

Low density

High strength
High stiffness
Good shear
properties
Low density

COMPOSITE MATRIX

The matrix serves two primary functions:

1. to hold the fibrous phase in place and
2. to deform and distribute the stress under load to the reinforcement
phase.

A secondary function of the matrix is to

1. protect the surface of the reinforcement.
2. protect reinforcement from oxidation or corrosion. E.g. graphite
fibers can be used in oxidizing environments at elevated
temperatures.
3. prevent the reinforcement from abrasion and scratching, which can
degrade their mechanical properties.

MAIN CLASSES
Particulate composite

Various geometrical shapes (cubes, spheres, flakes, etc.)

Various materials (rubber, metal, plastics, etc.)

Have generally low strength

Fibre composite

Discontinuous or

Continuous

Further divisions are shown on the next slide

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS

QUIZ 2
1. Define a composite material
2. List all the FIVE (5) functions of the
matrix of a composite material discussed
in our last class.
3. List the TWO (2) different types of
discontinuous fibre reinforced
composites.

TYPICAL REINFORCEMENT TYPES

Typical Reinforcement Types

Influence of Reinforcement Type and

Quantity on Composite Performance

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS

Focus is on artificial composites.

Natural composites include:
Wood (cellulose fibers with stiffer lignin matrix)
Bone (soft collagen and brittle apatite)

Bone is a composite material with various different components.

Composition of Bone:
45 wt% mineral salts (calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate)
35 wt% organics (collagen protein)
20 wt% water
Continuous versus discontinuous fibers
1. Continuous fibers have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios.
2. Continuous-fiber composites normally have a preferred orientation, while discontinuous
fibers generally have a random orientation.

Microscopy

Properties

Advantages of Composite
Tailorable mechanical properties
Materials
Weight reduction (approximately 20 50%)
Anisotropic materials.
Designable and tolerable materials for both microstructure and
properties.
Lower assembly costs (fewer fasteners, etc.)
Production of both material and structure/component in a single
operation manufacturing flexibility, net-shape, complex geometry.
Sales through offset
Corrosion resistance and fatigue resistance.
Other unique functional properties damping, low CTE.

Disadvantages of
High cost of fabrication.
Composites

Nonvisible impact damage

Mechanical characterization of composite structure is more complex

than a metal/polymer structure.

Repair of a composite is not a simple process compared to that of

metals/polymers.

Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture

toughness compared to metals.

Composites do not necessarily give higher performance in all the

properties used for material selection: strength, toughness, formability,
joinability, corrosion resistance, and affordability.

TERMINOLOGY
Composites:
Multiphase material with significant
proportions of each phase.

Matrix:
The continuous phase
Purpose is to:
Transfer stress to other phases
Protect phases from environment
Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC
metal ceramic polymer
Dispersed phase:
Purpose: enhance matrix properties.
MMC: increase y, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase Kc
PMC: increase E, y, TS, creep resist.

woven
fibers

0.5

mm

cross
section
view

0.5

mm

Composites: Getting the Best of All Worlds

heavy

Lower Tm

36

Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness
Force

PMCs: Increased E/
103

particle-reinf

E(GPa)
PMCs
2
10
10

fiber-reinf

un-reinf
-4

Bend displacement

MMCs:

10

ess (s-1)
-6
10

Increased
creep
resistance

-8

10

-10

10

6061 Al

6061 Al
w/SiC
whiskers

ceramics

metal/
metal alloys

.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
.1 .3 1 3 10 30
Density, [mg/m3]

s (MPa)
2030 50 100 200

Comparison between Conventional

Monolithic Materials and Composite
Materials

Applications

Offshore/Subsea

Offshore/Subsea

Ships/Boats

Naval Ships

Sports and Leisure Equipment

Cars

Trains (Flytoget)

Aircraft

Composites in Airbus Designs

Composites in Airbus Designs

Materials in Boeing 787 Dreamliner

Aircraft Development over the Years

Wind Energy

Buildings and Bridges

British Naval Vessels in GRP

Visby Class Swedish Navy

Particulate Composites

Large particulate composites

Involves particles that are harder or stiffer than the matrix
The matrix transfer applied stress to the particles, which thus bear a
fraction of the load
Bonding at the interface is necessarily important.

Particles should be
Equiaxed
Uniformly distributed
Properties generally determined by the rule of mixtures
Upper bound:

Lower bound:

Particulate Composites
Cermets (not cements) are ceramic-metal composites
Examples
Cermented Carbide cutting tools
o
o

- WC/Co matrix:
WC of TiC particles (incredibly hard)
cementedcobalt
carbide (ductile)
Vm:
Metal matrix (Co or Ni)

5-12 vol%!

particles:
WC
(brittle, hard)
600 m

The particles will crack under the high stresses in cutting applications,
so the matrix prevents crack propagation between particles by
separating them.
Up to 90 volume percent of particles
Polymer/Carbon composites include

- Automobilematrix:
particles:
rubber
Tires
C (15 30 vol%
tires
(compliant)
(stiffer)
o Elastomer matrix with carbon black particles (15 30 vol%)
0.75 m
o Improved tensile strength, tear and abrasion resistance, and toughness
o

Small particles are optimal, < 50 nm.

QUIZ 3
1. Differentiate between continuous and
discontinuous fibers
2. What is a matrix in composite materials ?
3. What are cerments ?
4. For a good particulate composite the particles
should be ?

Particulate Composites
Examples
Ceramic-ceramic composites include
Concrete is:
o

~70 vol% sand and gravel particles (different sizes promote better packing).

Portland cement is the binder once water is added.

Improved tensile, compressive, and shear response by reinforcing with

steel rods, bars (rebar), wires, or wire mesh (ceramic-ceramic-metal
composite).
o

Steel is selected for thermal expansion coefficient

Not corroded during cement hardening

Strong composite/matrix bond is possible, especially if the steel surface is

contoured.

CONCRETE
Concrete gravel + sand + cement
- Why sand and gravel?
Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rod or mesh
- increases strength - even if cement matrix is
cracked
Prestressed concrete - mesh under tension during setting of concrete.
Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force
Post tensioning tighten nuts to put under tension
threaded
rod
nut

Dispersion Strengthened (Higher Tech

) Similar to precipitation hardening
Strengthening is not as good as for precipitation hardening at low
temperatures
At higher temperatures the properties are generally better.
o

Particles are selected to be unreactive (no precipitate growth or dissolution of

the precipitate).

Dispersion strengthened composites

Small particles (10 to 100 nm, sometimes 250 nm)
Matrix bears most of the applied load
Particles hinder or impede motion of dislocations
Plastic deformation is restricted
Improves yield and tensile strength.
Examples
Thoria dispersed nickel (Ni with up to 3 vol% ThO2 particles)
Sintered aluminum powder (SAP) composites. SAP has Al matrix

Large-Particle vs. DispersionStrengthened Composites

Shear
Large-Particle

Strong Particle
>500 nm
Dispersion Strengthened

Dislocation shears through

the dispersion

Stress field of
dispersion

Strong Particle
<100 nm

Dislocation stopped

Fibre Composites
Why the use of fibres?
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the
dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber.
Especially for ceramics, due to Weibull statistics the fracture strength
of a small part is usually greater than that of a large component
(smaller volume = fewer flaws = fewer big flaws).
Fibres are very strong
Provide significant strength improvement to material
E.g. fiber-glass
o Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
o Strength due to fibers
o Polymer simply holds them in place
Fibers have length that are much greater than their diameter
Fibers have very high specific strength and specific modulus

Fibre Composites
Fibres come in three forms
Whiskers (graphite, SiC, Si3N4, Al2O3)
o
o
o
o
o

Single crystals
Huge length/diameter
Small, so nearly flaw free
Strongest known materials
expensive

Fibres (aramids, glass, carbon, boron, Si3N4, Al2O3)

o Polycrystalline or amorphous
o

Small diameter

Wires (usually metals)

o

Larger diameter

Composite Structural Organization: The

Design Variations

For any composite, regardless of the selection of matrix and

disperse phase (material and type), there are many options that

Behaviour of Unidirectional Composites

The proportion of the external load borne by each of the individual
constituents can be gauged by volume-averaging the load within them.
At equilibrium, the external load must equal the sum of the volume-averaged
loads borne by the constituents.
This gives rise to the condition + (1 f)
where
m and f are volume avg. stresses of matrix and reinforcement phases,
respectively,
A is external applied stress and
f is a volume fraction.

Concept of Load Transfer

For a simple two-constituent composite under a given
applied load, a certain proportion of that load will be carried
by the reinforcement and the remainder by the matrix.
Provided the response of the composite remains elastic, this
proportion will be independent of the applied load.
It depends on the volume fraction, shape and orientation of
the reinforcement and on the elastic properties of both
constituents.

Concept of Load Transfer

There are 3 cases of stress distribution along the fibre/matrix
interface.
1. both the matrix and fibre are elastic,
2. the matrix is plastic and the fibre is elastic, and
3. the matrix is plastic and the fibre is plastic.
Fibres such as glass, carbon and ceramic fibres are essentially
plastic.
Metallic matrices show elastic and plastic deformation before
fracture, while polymeric and ceramic matrices can be treated,
for all practical purposes, as plastic up to fracture.
Reinforcements are efficient when it carries a relatively high

Concept of Load Transfer

A high-modulus fibre embedded in a low-modulus matrix:

(a) before deformation and

(b) after deformation

How Does Fiber Reinforcement

Work?

Fiber Composite Strengthening

Mechanisms
Hinders crack propagation by
o redistributing stress near a crack tip and/or
deflect cracks.
o form bridges across crack faces.
o absorb energy as whiskers are pulled out of
the matrix by an advancing crack.
o absorb energy upon fracture of whiskers.

Fiber Load Behaviour Under

Stress
For L=Lc, the maximum fiber load
is achieved at the center of the
fiber length.
For L>Lc, the maximum fiber load
is carried by most of the fiber.
These are considered to be
Continuous fibers and are
optimal.
For L<Lc, the maximum fiber load
is never reached, so that a weaker,
cheaper and longer fiber or even
particles could have been used

*f d
lc
2 c

VOLUME AND WEIGHT FRACTIONS

One of the most important factors determining the properties
of composites is the relative proportions of the matrix and
reinforcing materials
The relative proportions can be given in volume or weight
fractions.
The weight fractions are easier to obtain during fabrication or
by one of the experimental methods after fabrication.
However, volume fractions are used exclusively in the
theoretical analysis of composite materials.
It is thus desirable to determine the expressions for conversion
between the weight fractions and volume fraction.

NOMENCLATURE
One of the most important factors determining the properties of
composites is the relative proportions of the matrix and
reinforcing materials

Volume and Weight Fractions

Consider a composite of volume vc that consists of volume vf of

the fibres and volume vm of the matrix material.
+
and
Also,
let wc , wf, and wm represent the corresponding weights of the
composite material, fibre, and matrix material, respectively
+
and

Volume and Weight Fractions

Conversion relations between weight and volume fractions can be

obtained if the density c of the composite is established.
+
+
+
Therefore, for a composite material reinforced with more than
TWO materials, the density of the composite material in terms of
volume fractions can be obtained from the generalized
relationship

Volume and Weight Fractions

By similar manipulation, the density of composite materials in

terms of weight fractions can easily be obtained as.
And the density in terms of weight fractions can be obtained using
the generalized relationship

QUIZ 6
1. Derive the relation for the density of a two
component composite material using the
weight fraction of the constituent materials.
2. List the THREE (3) factors one need to
consider in using a given reinforcement in a
composite material?

Volume and Weight Fractions

The conversion between the weight fraction and volume fraction

can be obtained from?
=
and
The inverse relations are:
and
The generalized equations are:
and

Volume and Weight Fractions

The inclusion of voids in composite materials needs to be

accounted for
Their presence results in differences in experimentally
determined density and theoretically calculated density of any
composite material
Other factors which affect the in situ resin density of a
composite material includes curing, heat and pressure, and
interaction with the reinforcement surface
The volume of void is given as
Higher void contents usually mean lower fatigue resistance,
greater susceptibility to water penetration and weathering, and
increased variation or scatter in strength properties.

EXAMPLE 1

A thermoplastic matrix contains 40 wt.% glass fibre. If the density o

the matrix m is 1.1 g/cm3 while that of glass fibre, f, is 2.5 g/cm3,
what is the density of the composite? Assume that no voids are
present.

Solution
Consider 100 g of the composite:
Weight of glass fibre, wf = 40 g; Weight of matrix, mm = 60 g
+ = =
+

EXAMPLE 2: W-C COMPOSITE

A cemented carbide cutting tool used for machining contains 75 wt
% WC, 15 wt% TiC, 5 wt% TaC, and 5 wt% Co. Estimate the density
of the composite. The densities of WC, TaC, TiC and Co are 15.77,
14.5, 4.94, and 8.90 g/cm3, respectively.

Solution
First, we must convert the weight percentages to volume
fractions.
=
=, =, =

LONGITUDINAL BEHAVIOUR OF UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPOSITES

Theoretical and semi empirical methods of determining composite
properties can be used to predict the effects of a large number of
system variables.
Initial Stiffness
Assumptions

A unidirectional composite may be modeled by assuming fibres

to be uniform in properties and diameter, continuous, and
parallel throughout the composite

Also, a perfect bonding exists between the fibres and the matrix
so that no slippage can occur at the interface .

STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS IN LONGITUDINAL (FIBRE) DIRECTION

Assumptions

INITIAL STIFFNESS

The strains experienced by the fibre, matrix, and composite are

equal:
The load Pc carried by the composite is shared between the fibres Pf
and the matrix Pm so that

Loads Pc, Pm, and Pf carried by the composite, matrix, and

fibres respectively, may be written in terms of stresses
c, m, and f and their corresponding cross-sectional areas
Ac, Am, and Af.
Thus,
Or,

INITIAL STIFFNESS

For composites with parallel fibres, the volume fractions

are equal to the area fractions such that
and
Thus,
This equation can be differentiated with respect to strain,
which is the same for the composite, the fibres, and the
matrix.

INITIAL STIFFNESS

Where (d/d) represents the slope of the corresponding

stressstrain diagrams at the given strain. If the stress
strain curves of the materials are linear, the slopes are
constants and can be replaced by the corresponding elastic
modulus
This indicates that the contributions of the fibres and the
matrix to the average composite properties are
proportional to their volume fractions.
This type of relationships are called the rule of mixtures
and can be generalized as

QUIZ 7

NOTE: DO NOT PROVIDE YOUR DETAILS ON THE SHEET

1)Write what you do not like about our

composite class.
2)Provide ways in which our composite class
can be made better.
3)How has composite MSE 451 improved your
scope of knowledge in materials engineering.
4)What do you like about the class?

EXAMPLE 3:

Calculate the ratios of longitudinal modulus of the composite to the

matrix modulus for glass-epoxy and carbon-epoxy composites with
10 % and 50 % fibres by volume. Elastic moduli of glass fibres,
carbon fibres, and epoxy resin are 70, 350, and 3.5 GPa respectively

Solution
The last equation can be written as
Which results in
System (Ec/Em)
Glass-epoxy (20)
Carbon-epoxy

Ec/Em
Vf = 10 %

Vf = 50 %

2.9

10.5

Example 3:
It may be observed that
o as the fibre volume fraction increases by a factor of 5, the
ratio of Ec/Em also increases by a similar factor (3.62 for glass
epoxy and 4.63 for carbon-epoxy).
o as the fibre modulus increases by a factor of 5, the ratio Ec/Em
again increases by a similar factor (3.76 at Vf = 10 % and
4,81 at Vf = 50 %).
These calculations show that the fibres are very effective in
increasing the composite modulus in the longitudinal direction.
Further, the elastic modulus of fibres has a significant influence
on the composite modulus.

Initial Stiffness
Consider two composites
o The fibres in both composites have linear stress strain
curves up to their fracture.
o The matrix material of one of the composites also has a linear
stress strain curve
o The other matrix has a nonlinear stress strain curve shown
in (b)
The stress in both composites
can be obtained by the rule of
mixtures
Stress strain curve of
composite (a) will be linear
whereas that of (b) will be nonlinear

Initial Stiffness
The composite strain at which the stress-strain curve for
composite (b) becomes nonlinear will be the strain at which the
matrix stress-strain curve becomes nonlinear.
Because of the predominance of fibre properties, the final shape
of the stress-strain curve may not be distinct at higher fibre
volume fractions.
The actual location of the composite stress-strain curve will
depend on the relative volume fractions of the constituents
The actual location of the composite stress-strain curve depend
on the relative volume fractions of the constituents.
Higher volume fractions of fibre shifts the stress-strain curve
closer to the fibre stress-strain curve and vice versa for higher
matrix volume fraction.

Initial Stiffness
These predictions are quite accurate when the applied is tensile
and agree very well experimental results.
For compressive loads, experimental observations may deviate.
This may be attributed to the fact that the behaviour of fibres in
the composite subjected to compressive loads is analogous to
the behaviour of columns on an elastic foundation.
Hence the response of the composite to compressive load is
strongly dependent on matrix properties such as its shear
stiffness.

LOAD SHARING
For

load sharing,

Thus,
and

The ratio of stresses is the same as the ratio of corresponding elastic moduli.
Hence to attain high stresses in the fibres and thereby use high-strength fibres
most efficiently, it is necessary for fibre modulus to be much greater than the
matrix modulus

Load Sharing
The percentage of load carried by the fibres becomes higher for a higher
ratio of elastic moduli of fibres and matrix and a higher volume content
fibre.
of
For a given fibre matrix system, the
volume fraction of fibres in the
composite must be maximised if the
fibres are to carry a higher
proportion of the composite load.
Theoretically, the maximum volume
percent of cylindrical fibres that can
be packed into a composite is
almost 91 %, above 80 % the
composite properties usually begin
to decrease because of the inability
of the matrix to wet and infiltrate
the bundles of fibres. This results in Figure. Percentage load carried by the fibres in a
unidirectional composite loaded in the longitudinal
poorly bonded fibres and voids in

EXAMPLE 4:

Calculate the fraction of load carried by the fibres in the composites

indicated in Example 3.
System (Ec/Em)
Glass-epoxy (20)
Carbon-epoxy
(100)

Pf/Pc
Vf = 10 %

Vf = 50 %

0.69

0.952

0.917

0.99

The excellent strengths and strength-weight ratios achieved by

carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics are a result of the high strength of
the carbon fibre and the ability of the composite to use this
strength because the ratio of Ef/Em is approximately 100. Even at 10
% by volume of carbon, the fibre will account for 91.7 % of the total

Behaviour beyond Initial Deformation

The equations derived earlier are only applicable when both
constituents deform elastically.
This may constitute only a small portion of the composite
stress-strain behaviour and is applicable primarily for ceramicfibre-reinforced thermosetting plastics.
Generally, the deformation of a composite may proceed in four
stages, summarized as
1) Both the fibres and the matrix deform in a linear elastic
fashion.
2) The fibres continue to deform elastically, but the matrix now
deforms nonlinearly or plastically.
3) The fibres and the matrix both deform nonlinearly or

Behaviour beyond Initial Deformation

Stage 2 may occupy the largest portion of the composite stress-strain

curve, particularly for a MMC. Here, the matrix stress-strain curve is no
longer linear, so the composite modulus must be predicted at each strain

level by
where

is the slope of the stress-strain curve of the

matrix at the strain of the composite

Earlier equations can be used to predict

Stage 3. Furthermore, for ductile fibres
that fail by necking, additional factors
such as the hydrostatic lateral restraint
exerted by the matrix to prevent
necking of the fibres causes deviations

Figure. Longitudinal stress-strain curves for unidirectional

composites with ductile and brittle fibres and a typical

Failure Mechanism and Strength

In a unidirectional composite subjected to a longitudinal load, failure

initiates when the fibres are strained to their fracture strain. This
assumes that the failure strain of the fibres is less than that of the
matrix and also for theoretical predictions, all fibres also fail at the
same strain.

If the fibre volume fraction is large enough (above a certain

minimum, Vmin), the matrix will not be able to support the entire load
when all the fibres break, and composite failure then will take place
instantly. Under these conditions, the ultimate longitudinal tensile
strength of the composite can be assumed equal the composite
stress at the fibre fracture .
The rule of mixtures therefore can be used to obtain
)
where

(1)

QUIZ 8

1)For a composite material whose matrix

strains non-linearly and the fibre linearly,
write down the equation used to predict
the composites modulus.

2)Name the FOUR (4) stages of deformation

of composite materials.

Failure Mechanism and Strength

For small volume fraction, that is, below Vmin, the matrix will be able
to support the entire composite load when all the fibres break.
The matrix will also be able to take additional load with increasing
strain.
It is generally assumed that the fibres do not support any load (i.e., )
at composite strains higher than the fibre fracture strain.
The composite eventually fails when the matrix stress equals its
ultimate strength (i.e., ).

Thus the ultimate strength of a composite with the fibre volume fraction
less than Vmin is given by
)
(2)
Vmin can be defined as the minimum fibre volume fraction that ensures
fibre-controlled composite failure. Show that Vmin is
(3)

Failure Mechanism and Strength

A typical stress-strain curve using equations (1) and (2) against
Vf is shown in the figure below.
The matrix may be a strain hardening metal or an inelastic
polymer.
The solid portions of the lines
represent the range of their
applicability, and their intersection
defines Vmin.
Equation (2) predicts composite
strength that is always less than the
strength of unreinforced matrix and
Equation (1) predicts composite
strength that can be lower or higher
than the matrix strength depending on

Figure. Longitudinal strength of a

unidirectional composite as a function

Failure Mechanism and Strength

The critical fibre volume fraction, Vcrit, that must be exceeded for
strengthening is:

(4)
or

(5)
Equations (3) and (4) show that Vmin and Vcrit arise as a result of the
strain hardening and plastic flow of the matrix and the matrix strength
being higher than the matrix stress at the fibre fracture strain.
In MMCs, Vmin and Vcrit increase as the degree of strain hardening of
the matrix increases and also the matrix strength approaches the fibre
strength. Thus, when a strong matrix is to be reinforced by fibres of
marginal strength, large volume fractions will be required before
strengthening can be observed.
In PMCs, Vmin and Vcrit are very small because most polymers exhibit

Example 4
A unidirectional glass-epoxy composite has Vm/Vf = 1.5. What
minimium volume fraction of carbon fibres should be added to the
glass-epoxy composite, without changing the ratio of volume
fractions of epoxy resin and glass fibres, to obtain any
strengthening. Following are the constituent properties.
Density
(g/cm3)

E
(GPa)

u
(MPa)

Epoxy resin

1.2

3.5

52.5

Glass fibres

2.5

70

700

Carbon fibres

1.8

350

700

Material

Quiz 9
1. Using symbols
discussed in the last
class, label all
necessary points
including the axes on
the Figure below.
2.

What do the terms

in (1) above
represent?

Figure. Longitudinal strength of a unidirectional

composite as a function of fibre fraction

Factors Influencing Longitudinal Strength

The
factors
influencing the strength and stiffness of composites
and
Stiffness
are:
1) misorientation of fibres,
2) fibres of non uniform strength,
3) discontinuous fibres,
4) interfacial conditions, and
5) residual stresses

Misorientation of Fibres
Orientation of fibres with respect to loading axis is an important
parameter.
o

Orientation directly affects the distribution of load between fibres and matrix.

Contribution of fibres to composite properties is maximum only when they are parallel
to the loading direction.

The extent to which the strength and stiffness may be reduced

depends on the angle of the fibre to the loading axis or number
of fibres that are not parallel to the loading direction
In practice, difficulties encountered in fabricating composite
materials prevent all fibres to be aligned perfectly

Fibres of Non Uniform Strength

Strength of fibres affect the strength of composites in a very
direct manner.
o

Any reduction in fibre strength will result in lowering of the composite strength

A high strength composite will be obtained when all the fibres are uniform in their
strength values.

Individual metal fibres generally exhibit reproducible strengths,

particularly ductile wires and to some extent uniform brittle
wires.
Drawn glass or silica fibres show a considerable spread in
strengths about a mean value. Possible causes of variations are
as a result of
o

variations in fibre diameter with length resulting from the manufacturing process, and

Fibres of Non Uniform Strength

The statistical models of composite strength have been
developed on the basis of experimental observations of the
failure of the composites
o It is observed that fracture of individual fibres in a composite starts at
loads much smaller than the composite failure load.
o More fibres break with increasing load, and some fibres break at many
different cross sections. Thus the fibre breaks accumulate when the load
increases.
o The model, based on the weakening of the cross-section resulting from a
statistical cross section is referred to as the cumulative-weakening failure
model.
o The model takes into account the effects of stress redistributions in the
vicinity of an individual fibre break.

Fibres of Non Uniform Strength

Second consideration in statistical model is the dependency of
fibre strength on fibre length.
o

Fibres are considered as long chain of links and this chain usually breaks at the
weakest link.

Longer chains have higher probability of having a weaker link and hence
smaller strengths

Composites actually contain bundles of fibres of non-uniform strength. The

strength follow a Weibull statistics distribution

In general, the average strength of a bundle is somewhat less than the

average strength of the fibres when tested individually.

The statistical failure model takes into account the

o

length-strength relationship,

the statistical variation of fibre strength, and

Discontinuous Fibres
In composites, load is not directly applied to the fibres but to the
matrix material and is transferred to the fibres through the fibre ends
and small fibre lengths near the end.
When the length of a fibre is much greater than the length over which
the transfer of stress takes place, the end effects can be neglected,
and the fibre may be considered to be infinite in length or continuous.
The stress on continuous fibre can therefore can be assumed
constant over its entire length.
For short fibres composites, the end effects cannot be neglected.
Their behavior can not be described by the rule of mixtures but
instead a modified set of equations which will be derived later in class
to account for the fact that a portion of the end of each finite-length
fibre is stressed at less than the maximum fibre stress.

Discontinuous Fibres
Fibre ends of discontinuous-fibre reinforced composite cause
stress concentration and its of particular important in the case of
the failure of composites with brittle matrices.
As a result of the stress concentrations, the fibre ends become
separated from the matrix at a very small load, thus producing a
microcrack in the matrix.
The interface shear stresses may separate the fibre from the
remaining composite by propagating the crack along the length
of the fibre.

Interfacial Conditions
The interfacial bond between the matrix and the fibres is an
important factor influencing the mechanical properties and
performance of composites.
The interface is responsible for transmitting the load from the matrix
to the fibres, which contribute the greater proportion of the
composite strength.
For strong bonds, the cracks do not propagate along the length of the
fibres. Thus the fibre reinforcement remains effective even after the
fibre breaks at several points along its length.
A strong bond is also essential for higher transverse strengths and for
good environmental performance of composites.
Thus maximum use of fibre properties requires optimal bonding
across the interface, although it is difficult to relate other composite

Residual Stresses
Fabrication process used to make fibrous composites inherently
produces residual stresses in the constituents and at the
interface.
Residual stresses are caused by differences in:
1) the coefficients of thermal expansion for the constituents and
2) fabrication temperature and the temperatures at which they are used

) Moreover, in laminates, residual stresses are present because of

the difference in thermal expansion of the individual piles.
) Residual stresses affect the strength of the composite as well as
its response to mechanical loads.